participles. The Southern dialect held fast to the th of the third singular and to the th of the plural throughout, and imitated the Northern in none of the changes initiated by it.

4. Orthography.-Anglo-Saxon cyrice, cernan, cist, retaining the k sound of c, became kirk, kern, and kist, in the Northern, but church, churn, and chest in the Southern. Anglo-Saxon fox remained fox in the Northern, became vox in the Southern. Anglo-Saxon brycg was bryg in the North and bridge in the South. Stān, mār, are stane and mare in the North, and stone and more in the South.

We may add that some Scandinavian words in the North are absent from the dialect of the South.

The Midland dialect mediated between these two. Having over both the Northern and the Southern the advantages of London, the Court, the two Universities, and great authors like Chaucer, it took what it chose from each; or, as in the case of the present plural in en, it rejected the authority of both, crowded them to the wall, and in the end became the national language. Still, for a long while it felt the influence of both. Shakespeare has more than two hundred plurals of verbs in s, Lounsbury says; one hundred and sixtyeight, according to March. Even after the modernization of Shakespeare's plays by his editors, four verbs with plurals in s-iies, aches, fares, and falls—are found in The Tempest, it is said.

CHAPTER IX.

THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE LATIN IN OUR VOCABULARY.

The Norman words, properly Latin, came into English (1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples for terms to denote things and express thoughts which the Saxons never had, and so had no words to denote. They came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words which the AngloSaxons before the Conquest did have. They came (3) as contestants for the places already filled by the Anglo-Saxon. In this contest the Latin (a) sometimes dislodged the AngloSaxon. Labor and toil do duty now instead of swincan, and voice has supplanted stefen. Often in the struggle the Latin (6) divided the ground with the Anglo-Saxon. Color exists side by side with hiw, or hue, and joy with bliss. But oftener, perhaps, the Anglo-Saxon (c) held their positions, and the Latin words never secured the coveted footing in the language.

Latin words have come in, in great numbers, since, to satisfy the demands of our ever-increasing knowledge and higher development. For little attempt has been made to meet these insatiable requirements by any effort to compound into new vocables the old Anglo-Saxon material preserved. These, too, have entered into contest with the AngloSaxon for the places occupied by them.

XXXI. What Words belong to Each Element.-We may

say that all the pronouns; the numerals; the irregular verbs (except strive), including the auxiliaries; the prepositions and the conjunctions (excepting save, except, concerning, and because and a few others) are Anglo-Saxon. A slight percentage of the other words are Indo-European; some are Celtic, some Scandinavian, some Greek, and some have been adopted from the peoples with whom the English have had intercourse.

The remainder are Anglo-Saxon and Latin. It is of this remainder, the bulk of the vocabulary, more than ninety per cent. of it, that we wish now to speak. And we shall speak more plainly if we speak specifically, if we throw these words into classes and look at them there. We can

not give all the classes, cannot give all the words in each class. To do this would require hundreds of pages. But perhaps the classes, and the words in each class, may be made representative; if so, selecting and studying the few, we may safely draw conclusions respecting all.

We will here say that under each heading the first list of words is Anglo-Saxon; the second, Latin.

1. The Names of Trees, Plants, Flowers, and their Parts.

Ash, berry, birch, blade, blossom, bough, daisy, elm, harebell, hemlock, ivy, leaf, limb, maple, moss, oak, oxslip, root, sap, sprig, stalk, stem, thistle, twig, walnut, and willow.

Bulb, carnation, columbine, dandelion, fennel, foliage, fruit, gourd, herb, larch, lichen, lotus, pansy, petal, pine, pistil, pollen, poplar, poppy, stamen, trunk, vine, and violet.

2. Names of Cereals, Vegetables, and Fruits. Apple, barley, bean, corn, cranberry, oats, rye, and wheat. Grain, onion, parsnip, pea, pear, pulse, radish, and squash.

3. Names of Animals, Domestic and Other.

Ant, bear, bee, bird, boar, bull, calf, cat, chicken, colt, cow, crow, dove, duck, flea, fly, fowl, frog, gnat, goat, hare, heifer, hen, horse, lamb, lark, midge, mouse, owl, sheep, snake, spider, toad, wasp, and

worm.

Beast, biped, brute, caterpillar, eagle, falcon, insect, lizard, male, oriole, oyster, pigeon, porcupine, quadruped, reptile, salmon, serpent, vermin, viper, and vulture.

4. Names of Parts of the Body, Human and Other.

Ankle, beard, blood, bone, breast, brain, brow, cheek, chin, claw, ear, elbow, eye, fat, finger, hair, hand, hip, hoof, horn, lip, liver, mouth, nail, neck, nose, rib, shoulder, sinew, skin, thigh, throat, thumb, tongue, and wrist.

Abdomen, antennæ, entrails, face, gullet, intestines, loin, muscle, nerve, palate, serum, spine, tendon, vein, and vertebra.

5. Names of Buildings for Dwelling and Other Purposes, and their Parts.

Barn, beam, floor, glass, house, hovel, latch, lath, oven, rafter, roof, room, shed, shelf, shop, stair, and threshold.

Apartment, casement, castle, cellar, ceiling, chapel, college, cupola, domicile, edifice, flue, fort, foundation, hotel, joist, kitchen, mortar, pane, pantry, partition, plaster, porch, post, sash, spire, stable, tower, and wall.

6. Names of Household Articles.

Bed, bolster, bowl, broom, knife, looking-glass, needle, shears, sheet, sieve, spoon, stool, thimble, and tongs.

Bureau, carpet, coverlet, cup, curtain, cushion, fork, kettle, lamp, mat, mirror, napkin, pan, pail, pin, pillow, plate, scissors, table, and utensil.

7. Names of Farm Implements.

Auger, axe, hammer, harrow, ladder, rake, saw, scythe, shovel, spade, trough, wedge, and yoke.

Chisel, flail, lever, mallet, and sickle.

8. Nouns Denoting Time.

Day, evening, fortnight, morning, month, morrow, night, week, year, and yesterday.

Age, century, era, eternity, instant, millennium, minute, moment, noon, and second.

9. Nouns Denoting Occupation.

Blacksmith, fisherman, lawyer, preacher, saddler, sailor, shepherd, shoemaker, steward, and teacher.

Accountant, author, barber, doctor, editor, farmer, grocer, hostler, instructor, laundress, manufacturer, merchant, minister, publisher, and soldier.

10. Nouns Denoting Civil Organization and Rank in Life.

Alderman, borough, churl, earl, henchman, lady, lord, king, queen, sheriff, shire, and thane.

Bail, bill, chancellor, constable, consul, coroner, council, convention, countess, court, duke, judge, jury, legislator, magistrate, mayor, parliament, plaintiff, prince, prison, realm, republic, secretary, senate, servant, sovereign, and viscount.

11. Verbs Denoting Physical Acts.

Bake, blush, borrow, carve, climb, cram, dip, drain, fasten, fetch, flow, gather, gleam, gnaw, grin, hitch, knead, limp, mark, pound, prick, pull, reach, reap, row, scatter, shove, sift, singe, stoop, stretch, thump, tie, trim, twist, wade, whittle, wipe, wriggle.

Adhere, annex, arrest, ascend, bisect, chain, chase, chastise, collect, condense, confine, defend, deliver, destroy, disinfect, dispel, divide, elude, emerge, enter, escape, expend, expel, extort, feast, flog, fortify, impede, infuse, insert, invade, measure, mend, paint, pave, plunge, precede, protract, soar, stop, stain, surprise, travel, vibrate, and visit.

12. Verbs Expressing Acts of the Mind.

Believe, care, deem, dread, heed, hope, like, love, reckon, soothe, stare, thank, wish, and worship.

Admire, approve, aspire, conjecture, consider, deliberate, deplore,