notions into a whole. So far, the teacher's work is substantially that of communication. Mere reading, or uninterrupted talking, does not in the least accomplish the right work of geographical instruction.

The next important object is drilling, by a repeated review in the same order, or by an appropriate course over similar fields, by exhibiting sufficient representations of objects which can be impressed only mechanically, by imaginary travels with or without the map, by drawing maps from memory, by written answers to principal questions, etc. Hence, it follows that teaching geography requires manifold efforts, and that the teacher must be a good geographer and an able teacher, to be very successful.

13. What position in geographical instruction is due to reading from the map? At present it is no longer sufficient, with text-book in hand, to merely point on the map, what is spoken of in the book,-situation and boundaries of countries, beds of rivers, chains of mountains, places of cities, etc. The teacher must know how to read maps, and to teach them; i. e., not only to describe what figures and in what order and connection they stand on the map, but to translate the map, line by line, into the real world, in order that this be faithfully impressed in the mind, to be at any time reconstructed from it. He must understand the contents and meaning of the hieroglyphics of the map, and know how to exhibit them in an orderly and appropriate way, as we read a book. In reading a book, it does not suffice to find out the letters, to comprehend the single words and their conceptions, but the whole idea must be clearly understood and reproduced. The study of the map ought to render a great deal of the usual contents of the geographical text-books quite superfluous, that the pupil may not cling slavishly to the dead letters of the text-book, but may depend on the lively picture of a good map. (See Bormann and Sydow on reading maps.) 14. What is the value of the "comparative method" of teaching geography? If the material were such that all parts of it should be learnt quite separately from each other, it would not be worth while to use this method; for the gain in mental cultivation would be small. But since numerous conditions are the same or similar in many countries, it is natural, even for externally facilitating the understanding, to try, by comparing them with those of other countries, to know the nature of both countries and the effect of those conditions on nature. Situation, boundary, size, elevation, watering, climate, produce, population, means of commerce and travel, etc., and many other subjects, are suitable for comparisons. The comparison itself is an excellent introduction to the object, induces more acute observations, memory, reflection, a sagacious detection of differences, and becomes thus an efficient means of cultivating the mind. It is this which makes geography a refreshing as well as scientific exercise of the mind; since the mastering of a more or less extended scientific apparatus is both a means and an end. However, even in a small sphere and at the first beginning, these comparisons may be used, and then, as the student's horizon gradually expands, they will become more various, attractive and instructive, and will preserve the mind from that fragmentary and mechanical learning, by which the end can not be attained.

15. What success may be expected from geographical pictures?

Maps are but symbols of real nature: they represent by a hieroglyphic type a number of natural elements for large territories, without being able to represent correctly the real objects of small areas. But, a well-designed and sufficiently copious collection of vivid and correct pictures, on an appropriate scale, well

colored, containing mountains, valleys, plains, rivers, woods, prairies, fields, houses, bridges, ships, men, animals, etc.; or a choice collection representing the coöperating elements of nature in the most various places, in all zones, would be in a high degree instructive for the more advanced scholars. Then the eye might survey the whole landscape of natural and human life in its mutuality and connection, and would bring near the characteristics of the most distant countries; nearer than is possible by the most vivid description in words with the map only. For beginners, such pictures would be distracting; but, at an advanced period of instruction, nothing could be more useful. They would enliven the oral descriptions, and their impression would endure for life. With this conviction, some editors of maps, (see Vogel's Atlas,) have renewed the illustrations of maps, common in the middle of the past century, by no means merely for mere ornament, and have added marginal designs from the natural history of the world. Even in mathematico and physico-geographical maps, (see Berghaus' Physical Atlas,) this idea is made use of

16. What is the value of the so-called characteristic pictures, (CHARACTERBILDER?) It may be said, briefly, that the geographical Characterbilder, i. e., characteristic representations or descriptions of certain districts, afford a sensible view of the real life of nature, by developing, as upon a single characteristic locality of the globe, by the use of elements found elsewhere, with some modifications, the totality of this life in its various respects and relations. By a well-selected succession of such representations, the sections, as it were, of a picture of the whole earth, are given, and may afterward be joined into a whole. If they are written ably and sensibly, they have, besides their geographical importance, a great influence on æsthetic and linguistic education. It might be questioned whether near or distant countries are to be chosen, since the latter contain the greater number of unknown things; but practical teachers will prefer to begin with what lies nearest, and must, therefore, be most important for every one; as moreover this material contains enough to be learned by a beginner. (See Vogel's and Grube's "Characterbilder.")

17. What position should be allowed to the geography of civilization, (culturgeo graphie?)

It is not the earth, with its life, but man upon it, with his life, which is most interesting to man. The former interests us only on account of its intimate connection with the latter. To explain this connection is the difficult problem of "culture-geography;" which, for working out all the most different influences of life and nature into a transparent and ingenious whole, requires the highest degree of mental power, and has its place, if anywhere, only at the end of geographical instruction. Several movements of the human race must be discussed previously, and a satisfactory understanding of them is probably in all cases very doubtful with scholars who are not sufficiently prepared for it.

1. Guts-Muths, (Versuch, &c.) Weimar, 1845. See above, No. 3, analytical method.

18. What works on methodic instruction in geography are particularly worth considering?

2. Lüdde, "Methods in Geography," (Die methodik der Erdkunde,) Magdeburg, 1842. This is not confined to the wants of common schools, but gives academic instruction.

3. Zeune, "The three steps in Geography," (Die drei stufen der erdkunde,

Berlin, 1844, aims at laying the foundation of a strictly scientific instruction on the basis of a natural view of the earth, (in opposition to the historical ;) which character also predominates in Zeune's Goa.

4. Henning, "Guide to methodical instruction in geography," (Leitfaden beim methodischen unterricht in der geographie,) Iferten, 1812. See Pioneers of the synthetical method, No. 5.

5. Ziemann. See above, No. 5.

6. Görbrich, "Introduction to geographical instruction in common schools," (Anleitung zum erdkundlichen Unterricht in der Volksschule,) Wien, (Vienna,) 1853. A synthetical method; plain and clear.

7. Otto, "Universal method of geographical instruction," (Allgemeine methodik des geographischen Unterrichts,) Erfurt, 1839. Adheres to Guts-Muths, but uses the advantages of the synthetical method.

8. Agren. See above, No. 8; constructive method.

9. Kapp. See No. 8.

10. Canstein, "Attempt at a free delineation of the physical surface of the earth, by a simple method of construction," (Anleitung, die physischen Erdräume mittelst einfacher Construction aus freier Hand zu entwerfen,) Berlin, 1835. See No. 8.

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See also, the introductions to Harnisch's "Weltkunde," and Diesterweg's "Rheinprovinzen;" the essays in Mager's pedagogical "Revue," 1840 and 1841; in the "Schulblatt der provinz Brandenburg," 1847 and 1850; in Löw's pedagogical Monatschrift," 1847; in the programme of Bender's Institute, in Weinheim, 1850; in the General School Gazette of Darmstadt, 1845; (see Finger, "Instruction in the knowledge of the native country," (Unterricht in der Heimathkunde,) Leipzig, 1844;) in the pedagogical "Jahresbericht," of Nacke I., III., V., VIII., 1846-53. A historical exposition of geographical methodology is found in Zeune's "Views of the Earth," (Erdansichten,) and a compilation of the "Latest views upon geography and their application to school instruction," (Neuesten Ansichten von der Erdkunde und ihrer Anwendung auf den Schulunterricht,) in Lichtenstern's book with that title.

19. What books on mathematical geography are the best?

1. Diesterweg, "Astronomical geography and popular knowledge of the Heavens," (Astronomische geographie und populäre Himmelskunde,) Berlin, 1855. 5 editions. The best of all.

2. Wiegand, "Principles of mathematical geography," (Grundriss der mathematischen geographie,) Halle, 1853. Practical and good.

3. Brettner, "Mathematical Geography," (Mathematische geographie,) Breslan, 1850. Quite practical and popular.

The chapters concerning mathematical geography are excellent in Raumer's "Manual of Universal Geography," (Lehrbuch der allgemeinen geographie,) Leipzig, 1848; in Roon's greater geographical work, "The earth, its races and states," (Erd, Völker, und Staaten-kunde ;) and in Berghaus' "Rudiments of Geography, in five books," (Grundriss der geographie in fünf Büchern,) Breslau, 1840.

Of books on popular astronomy, very good ones are Kaiser's "Starry Heavens," (Sternenhimmel,) very clear; Littrow's "Wonders of the Heavens," (Wunder des Himmels ;) Stern's “Knowledge of the Heavens,” (Himmelskunde ;) Schulze's Astronomy; Mädler's Popular Astronomy; Hartmann's Urania; and Airy's and Brande's Lectures on Astronomy.

20. What books on physical geography may be recommended?

Berghaus, Roon, Raumer, Rougemont, Kalkstein, Guyot, Guts-Muths, Ewald, Somerville, Reuschle, K. V. Hoffmann, W. Hoffmann, Schouw; besides, the "Characterbilder" of Grube and Vogel, and shorter works by Viehoff, Cörnelius, Ball, Buff, Atzerodt, Gambihler, Gude, etc.

21 What text-books on political geography are the most popular?

The number of politico-statistical geographies is enormous. As most prominent, we may name those of Völter, Roon, Schacht; as very common, those of Bormann, Daniel, Selten, Voigt, Volger, Seydlitz, K. A. Hoffmann, Zachariæ, SteinHörschelmann; as shorter ones, those of Lüben, Stahlberg, Möbus, Ohlert, Petersen; as very good, those of Rhode and Barth; as larger ones, those of Ungewitter, Blanc, Wappaens, W. Hoffmann, etc.

The new discoveries are found in Froriep's "Almanac," (Jahrbuch ;) in Berghaus' Jahrbuch; in Lüdde's "Gazette of Geography," (Zeitschrift für Erdkunde ;) in Gumprecht's Zeitschrift; in Petermann's "Contributions," "Mittheilungen." 22. What works are there upon Geography of the native country?

Not so many as might be expected. For the geography of Prussia, Schneider, Schmidt, Uvermann, Vossnack, Natzmer; for that of Germany, Guts-Muths, Hoffmann, Winderlich, Billig, Curtmann, Vogel, Duller, etc.

23. Which maps are the best?

The wall-maps, (wandkarten,) of Sydow, Roost, K. V. Hoffmann, Stülpnagel, Grimm, Holle, Winkelmann, etc.; the hand and school-maps of Sydow, Berghaus, R. and Th. Lichtenstern, Völter, Stieler, Bauerkeller, Grimm, Kiepert Kutscheit, Winkelmann, Roost, Glaser, Wagner, Platt, Holle, Voigt, Gross, Vogel, Schuberth. For physical geography, Berghaus' Physical Hand Atlas, and his Schulatlas, are classical; and Bromme's Atlas, to Humboldt's Kosmos, very good.*

IX. HISTORY. BY ABBENRODE.

1. What are the material conditions requisite to make history an important means of mental cultivation?

The material ought to be selected with reference to the intellectual standing and wants of the pupil, to be formed into a well-systematized whole, and to be so used in teaching that, by its vividness and truth, as well as by its attractiveness for the juvenile mind, it may arouse and strengthen, improve morally, prepare the pupil worthily for practical life, and nourish in him a Christian spirit. Of course, the character of the nation to which the pupil belongs, is prominently to be considered.

2. What personal conditions influence the cultivating power of the study of history?

As the totality of the pupil's individuality requires, in historical construction. great regard, and as very much depends on the tact with which his mental powers are nourished, so the effect of history on his mind depends even more on the ability and character of the teacher. Unless he possesses, together with the requisite external skill, a sufficient knowledge of history, true piety, and a

NOTE. Especial reviews of a long number of books and maps are in Nacke's "Educational Annual," (Pedagog. Jahresbericht,) I., III., V., VII., and in Klöden's review of modern maps in the "School Gazette of Brandenburg,” (Schulblatt des provinz Brandenburg,) 1845

and 1846.

noble heart; and unless, besides being a man of veracity, he has acquired conscientious impartiality and the circumspect calmness of a clear judgment, he can not hope that his pupils will experience the cultivating power of history.

3. What are the leading characteristics of the proper material?

The most essential of these materials are, a, the political, under certain modifications, particularly that of the native country; b, history of civilization, under some limitations; particularly, that of the Christian church. Though the material chosen under either of these heads may be throughout kept asunder, and, in fact, has been so very often in historical works, yet an appropriate combination of the two for construction must be recommended, since they supplement one another usefully, and, in practice, admit quite well of this mutual compensation. Our German youth need, above all, the history of Germany, and where there is occasion, the attention should be fixed on the ecclesiastical, scientific, and artistical development, as well as on the formation of the character and manners of the nations. Which of the two sides, and in what proportion, is to predominate, depends on the particular wants of the pupils: still the history of the church is of especial value.

4. What are the principles of teaching history in school?

Historical instruction requires in all cases a narrative form. In proportion to age and ability, the narrative will have the character either of biography and monography, or will represent, in chronological order, definite groups of historical facts in their interior connection; without any exaltation of the authors of the events very high above the common level of life. In either case the teacher may choose an ethnographical, or a synchronistical order. The pragmatical method, right and important in itself, has in most cases at school, an unsatisfactory result, even in higher schools; since even the well-prepared students of the gymnasia, (colleges,) want the maturity of life which must aid the pragmatical understanding. Finally, the method of universal history is quite unsuitable to schools.

5. How have those principles been practically used and expressed hitherto?

History has been, from the most ancient times, written and taught in all forms. It has been a monumental narrative of the exploits of whole nations and privileged individuals. Each ancient people has, out of a certain necessity, written and taught its own history,-some classically,-for all time. Besides, modern nations have taken hold of the history of other countries, particularly of old Greece and Rome, and reflected them in the mirror of their own perception; they have created the representation of a history of the world,—general history. This has led to teaching general history, either connected with that of the church or separate from it. The almost exclusively "scientific" method of treating the same in writing and teaching made it suitable only for such as wanted a "scientific," (collegiate, etc.,) education. Others neither could nor should learn it. But, since a common inclination to acquire historical knowledge has sprung up, in consequence of a more general education in better schools, it suffices no longer to confine this instruction to the disciples of science, nor to satisfy with general notices from history. The people, even in the lowest classes, will—and should-partake of it. This has led to manifold and successful attempts to find a suitable way of treating history, and to give the common school a share in its profits.

Several popular and practical methods of teaching history have arisen, which, though differing in many respects, agree very much in their fundamental ideas.

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