pervading. The principal monasteries are possessed of sufficient property for their maintenance, aided by occasional contributions from Russia. The rural clergy are maintained by the communities. Orthodox Montenegro is divided into two dioceses, Cettinjé and Ostrog, but actually the cure of both sees is united in the hands of the Metropolitan Bishop of Cettinjé. The former see comprises 8 sub-districts, called proto-presbyteries, with 84 parishes, and the latter into 9 such districts with 75 parishes. The Roman Catholic Archbishopric of Antivari contains 10 parishes, all of which are situated in the districts recently acquired from Turkey, in which there are likewise 10 Mussulman parishes. The Greek Orthodox church has about 201,100 adherents; the Roman Catholic, 13,000; and the Mohammedan, 14,000. Instruction. Schools for elementary education are supported by Government; education is compulsory and free. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium or college for boys at Cettinjé, and a girls' high school with 86 resident pupils maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia. Justice, Crime, and Pauperism. A Judicial Code founded upon the Code Napoléon has been prepared, and is being gradually put in force. There are district courts in five of the principal towns. The administration of justice was modified by the law of December 19, 1902. In rural districts there are courts of first instance over which the heads of the districts preside. The local Knezes have only authority to settle trivial disputes and generally act as peace-makers. The 'Veliki Sud,' or supreme court at Cettinjé, has jurisdiction, both appellate and concurrent, over the whole principality, and from its decision in civil matters there is no appeal. In criminal cases the Prince may pardon or may mitigate sentences. Petitions against judges for undue delay may be lodged with the Minister of Justice. There are no judicial statistics, but crime in general is rare. There is no regular provision for poor relief. The Government, however, annually undertakes a certain number of public works, such as roads, bridges, &c., at which the indigent are invited to labour, being paid mostly in grain, procured for that purpose from Russia. Russian charity also does much. Finance, Defence. The annual revenue and expenditure amount each to about 882,000 Austrian florins, the chief sources of revenue being land tax, customs and monopolies. Of the expenditure the chief branches are the civil list, &c., 60,000 florins; administration, 230,912 florins; justice, 90,000 florins; worship and instruction, 170,000 florins; army and police, 90,000 florins. Montenegro has a public debt amounting to 960,000 florins. The There exists no standing army, but all the inhabitants, not physically unfitted, are trained as soldiers, and liable to be called under arms. Moslem inhabitants of Montenegro are exempted from military service on payment of a capitation tax. The number of trained men is put at 35,870 infantry, and 856 artillery. About 25,000 men are in the first class. There are military barracks at Cettinjé where 2 battalions, each of 400 men, are trained for 4 months and then disbanded, others taking their place. Regular drill and military instruction are superintended by Montenegrin officers who have been educated in Italy. There are about 130,000 Berdan and Moskovska rifles presented by Russia. The artillery consists of 2 siege guns, 2 bronze Russian 12-pounders, 6 Gatlings, 13 steel Krupp guns (8 centimètre), and 26 mountain guns, kept at the central depôt of Spuz, and at Cettinjé. Production and Industry. Agriculture is of the most primitive kind. The cultivated land is mostly the property of the cultivators, the Croatian system of domestic communism being generally prevalent. In some districts, however, the land is split up into diminutive peasant-holdings, while in a few the métayer system is met with, but large estates nowhere exist. The principal crops grown are maize, tobacco, oats, potatoes, barley, and buckwheat. The exclusive right to manu. facture, sell, and export tobacco is, since November 14, 1903, in the hands of an Italian syndicate. The vine is cultivated successfully in the Tchermnitchka Nahic, and the district of Podgoritza, and the olive about Antivari and Dulcigno. The uncultivable arca consists, in the east, of mountain pasturage and forests of beech, oak, &c., which, owing to the want of roads, are valueless; and, in the west, of bare limestone sparsely sprinkled with brushwood and stunted scrub. There are no sea-fisheries. Good trout fishing is to be obtained in the rivers. Any small manufactures that exist are only for local consumption. Live stock of all kinds are reared: there are 500,000 sheep and goats; 60,000 cattle; 8,000 swine; 3,000 horses. Deposits of iron ore have been found between Antivari and Nikšić. A concession to an Italian syndicate for working mines and forests and for constructing a narrow gauge railway of 24 miles is under consideration. Commerce. The customs tariff is at present from 6 to 8 per cent. ad valorem, The exports for 1904 were valued at 1,459,000 florins; the imports at 1,553,500 florins, including an exceptionally large amount for grain owing to failure of the crops. The principal exports are sumach, flea-powder (Pyrethrum roseum), smoked sardines (scoranze), smoked mutton, cattle, sheep, goats, cheese, wool, hides, skins, and furs, honey, beeswax, wood for walking-sticks, &c., olive-oil, wine, tobacco. The imports are salt from Turkey, a Government monopoly yielding 2,500l. a year; petroleum from Russia; maize, cottons, hardware, sugar, coffee, rice. Merchandise to the value of 50,000l. is annually imported from Austria, and about 7007. from Great Britain. Communications. There are excellent carriage roads from Budua and Cattaro to Cettinje; from Cettinjé by Ricka, near Lake Scutari, to Podgoritza, and to Nikšić; also from Podgoritza to Plawnitza (the Scutari-Lake Port of Podgoritza); and from Antivari to Vir Pazar on Lake Scutari. A carriage road is being constructed from Podgoritza to Kolaschine. There are public diligences between Cattaro and Cettinjé, between Cettinjé, Podgoritza, and Nikšić; and between Antivari and Vir Pazar. There are bridle roads over the rest of the principality. Two lake steamers of about 30 and 10 tons, respectively, belonging to the Anglo-Montenegrin Trading Company, ply between Rieka and the town of Scutari. A narrow gauge railway (the first Montenegrin railway) is to be constructed from Antivari to Nikšić, 100 miles, for the development of the iron mines which are being opened. There are 343 miles of telegraph line and 427 miles of wire in the country, with 20 offices. Montenegro forms part of the Postal Union; it has 18 post offices. Money. Montenegro has no coinage of its own; Austrian paper is the principal medium of exchange. Turkish silver is also current, and French and English gold circulates freely at a rate of exchange fixed from time to time by the Government. There is no bank of any kind in the country. British Minister Resident.— Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro. Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. No. 1761, 1896, No. 1884, 1897, and 2114, 1898 London. Handbook of the Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, &c. Prepared in the Intelligence Division of the War Office. London, 1895. Andric (M.), Geschichte des Fürstenthums Montenegro. 8. Wien, 1853. Caldwell (C. E.), Handbook of the Armies of the Minor Balkan States. Issued by Intelligence Division, War Office. S. London, 1891. Coquelle (P.), Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie. Paris, 1896. Frilley (G.) and Wahovitz (Ivan), Le Monténégro Contemporain. Paris. Kohl (J. Geo.), Reise nach Montenegro. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1851. Vol. IV. 1894. London, 1877. Kovalevsky (Egor Petrovich), Montenegro and the Slavonic Countries. (Russia.) 8. St. Petersburg, 1872. Krasinski (Walerjan Skorobohaty), Montenegro and the Slavonians of Turkey. 8. London. 1853. Miller (W.), the Balkans. [In 'Story of the Nations Series.] 8. London. 1896.Travel snd Politics in the Near East. London, 1898. Norman (H.), The Near East. London, 1896. Schwarz (Dr. B.), Montenegro, Schilderung einer Reise durch das Innere nebst Entwurt einer Geographie des Landes. 8. Leipzig, 1883. Sestak (J. F.) and Scherbs (F.), Militärische Beschreibung des Paschaliks Herzegovina und des Fürstenthums Cernagora. S. Wien. 1862. Mamler, Lettres sur l'Adriatique et le Monténégro. Lenormant, Turcs et Monténégrins. Yriarte (Ch.), Les Bords de l'Adriatique et le Monténégro. D'Avril (Baron), La France au Monténégro. Wingfield (W. F.), Tour in Dalmatia, &c. London, 1859. Wyon (R.) and Prance (G.), The Land of the Black Mountain. London, 1903. MOROCCO. (MAGHRIB-EL-AKSA.-EL GHARB.) Reigning Sultan. Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz, born February 24, 1878, son of Sultan Mulai-Hassan ; succeeded on the death of his father, being proclaimed Sultan in the Sherifian Camp June 7, 1894; his son, Prince Hassan, was born July, 1899. The present Sultan of Morocco-known to his subjects under the title of 'Emir-al-Mumenin,' or Prince of True Believers-is the fifteenth of the dynasty of the Alides, founded by Mulai-Ahmed, and the thirty-sixth lineal descendant of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. His four predecessors were : The Sherifian umbrella is hereditary in the family of the Filali Sharifs of Tafilet. Each Sultan is supposed, prior to death, to indicate the member of the Sherifian family who, according to his conscientious belief, will best replace him. This succession is, however, elective, and all members of the Sherifian family are eligible. Generally the late Sultan's nominee is elected by public acclamation at noonday prayers the Friday after the Sultan's death, as the nominee has probably possession of imperial treasure, and is supported by the bodyguard, from among whom the large majority of court officials are selected. Government. The form of government of the Sultanate, or Empire of Morocco, is in reality an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or religious. The Sultan is chief of the State, as well as head of the religion. As spiritual ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority not being limited, as in Turkey and other countries following the religion of Mahomet, by the expounders of the Koran, the class of 'Ulema,' under the 'Sheïk-ul-Islam.' The Sultan has six ministers, whom he consults if he deems it prudent to do so; otherwise they are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. They are the Grand Vizier, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, and War, Chief Chamberlain, Chief Treasurer, and Chief Administrator of Customs. The unsettled condition of affairs in Morocco rendered it necessary that other countries interested should come to an understanding regarding their respective rights. By the Anglo-French Convention of April, 1904, Great Britain recognises that it appertains to France to assist in the administrative, economic, financial, and military reforms in Morocco, but reserves the rights which by treaties or usage she now enjoys. Both Governments agree not to allow fortifications on the Moorish coast between Melilla and the heights dominating the right bank of the Sebu, but this arrangement does not apply to points held by Spain on that coast. Neither Government will lend itself to any inequality in taxation or railway rates, and reciprocal engagements with respect to trade are to last for 30 years with prolongation for periods of 5 years, failing denunciation a year in advance. Roads, railways, harbour works, &c., are to remain under State control. These arrangements were accepted also by Spain in a Franco-Spanish convention Germany, however, expressed dissatisfaction with this arrangement, and a conference of 13 delegates representing Morocco, the European Powers interested, and the United States of America, was held at Algeciras for the settlement of disputed matters, from January 16 to April 7, 1906, when an agreement, embodied in a General Act, was signed by all the delegates, each of the signatory Powers being required to have the agreement ratified before December 31, 1906. Under this agreement there will be a Moorish police force commanded by Moorish Kaids, assisted by French and Spanish instructors and officers, and the force will be inspected by a Swiss InspectorThe force will be from General, the arrangement to continue for 5 years. 2,000 to 2,500 strong, and will be distributed among the 8 ports of Morocco. A State Bank is to be instituted with a concession for 40 years. It will, to begin with, have a capital of from 15 to 20 million francs; it will issue bank notes, will act as Treasurer and Paymaster of Morocco, and be the financial agent of the Government at home and abroad. It will be required Its working will be observed, but not directed, to rehabilitate the currency. by 4 censors appointed by the Imperial Bank of Germany, the Bank of England, the Bank of Spain, and the Bank of France. Other provisions deal with the acquisition of land by foreigners, the imposition and collection of taxes, and the authority of the State over the public services and public works. Area and Population. The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the southern frontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled. According to the most recent investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000 English The estimates of the population of Morocco vary; it is square miles. generally considered to be about 5,000,000. An estimate of 1889 gives the following results:-The region of the old kingdom of Fez, 3,200,000; of Morocco, 3,900,000; of Tafilet and the Segelmesa country, 850,000; of Sus, Again, as to Adrar, and the Northern Draa, 1,450,000; total, 9,400,000. race-Berbers and Tuaregs, 3,000,000; Shellah Berbers, 2,200,000; Arabs (1) pure nomadic Bedouins, 700,000; (2) Mued, 3,000,000; Jews, 150,000 : negroes, 200,000. Some districts, including Tuat and other oases, claimed by the Sultan as part of Morocco were recently occupied by Algerian troops. An agreement between France and Morocco (July 20, 1901) makes the valley of the Wed tribes the boundary, and to the east of this only those who acknowledge French authority will be permitted to dwell. A French and Moroccan Commission is entrusted with the formation of police arrangements in the region. The number of Christians does not exceed 6,000; the Christian population of Tangier alone probably amounts to 5,000. Much of the interior of Morocco is unknown to Europeans. Fez, the capital, has a population of about 140,000, and Tangier about 30,000. Morocco city is the southern capital. The Sultan and his subjects are of the Malekite sect of Sunnite Mohammedans. The differences between sects are chiefly in the attitudes assumed during the recital of prayers. Finance, Defence. The annual revenue from Customs is put at 12,000,000 francs, and taxes are, at least in normal conditions, levied throughout the country; but the amount raised is not known. In 1903, loans of considerable amount were obtained, and in July, 1904, a French loan of 62,000,000 francs was contracted for on the security of the Customs. The purpose of this loan is stated to be the redemption of the earlier loans and the reform of the It will be repaid in half-yearly instalments Moroccan administration. between 1906 and 1941. The Sultan's army, which is quartered at the capital where he may happen to reside, is composed of about 10,000 Askar or disciplined infantry, and 400 |