C. L., History of Education in North Carolina (U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1894); Steiner, B. C., History of Education in Connecticut (U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1893) and History of Education in Maryland (U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1894), chaps. I-IV; Stockwell, T. B., History of Public Education in Rhode Island (Providence Press Co., Providence, 1876), pp. 281-404; and Wickersham, J. P., History of Education in Pennsylvania (Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1886), chaps. I-XII. CHAPTER XVIII GROWTH OF THE DEMOCRATIC IDEAL IN EDUCATION OUTLINE During the eighteenth century, there appeared the climax to the revolt against absolutism. This movement was directed against repression of intellect in the first half of the century, and against repression of political rights in the second half. The former phase, through Voltaire, made reason the basis of society and education, but introduced the tyranny of an intellectual few; the latter, through Rousseau, promoted an emotionalism and 'naturalism' that were in keeping with the sentiments of the times. The early treatises of Rousseau advocated a complete return to nature, but his later works somewhat modified this attitude. The Revolt from Absolutism.-The ideal of universality and of state control in the education of America and other countries was greatly assisted by the climax to the general revolt against absolutism and ecclesiasticism that appeared in the eighteenth century. During this period of time most strenuous efforts were made to interpret life from a more reasonable and natural point of view and to overthrow all customs and institutions that did not square with these tests. This The eighteenth century marked the climax of the rebellion against au- century thority and against the enslavement of the individual climax of the that had been manifesting itself in one form or another against the from the close of the Middle Ages. One revival after the individual. marked the rebellion enslavement of another-the Renaissance, the Reformation, realism, Puritanism, Pietism-had burst forth only to fade away or harden into a new formalism and authoritative standard. Yet with each effort something was really accomplished for freedom and progress, and the way was paved for the seemingly abrupt break from tradition that appears to mark the period roughly included in the eighteenth century. At this point despotism and ecclesiasticism were becoming thoroughly intolerable, and the individual tended more and more to assert his right to be an end in himself. At times all institutional barriers were swept aside, and in the French Revolution destruction went to an extreme. The logical consequence of these movements would have been complete social disintegration, had not the nineteenth century happily made conscious efforts to justify the eighteenth, and bring out the positions that were only implied in the negations of the latter. Thus the revolutionary tendencies and destruction of absolutism in the eighteenth century led to evolutionary movements and the construction of democracy in the nineteenth. The Two Epochs in the Eighteenth Century.-But this revolt of the eighteenth century from absolutism in politics, religion, and thought falls naturally into two parts. During the first half of the century the moveThe revolt ment was directed against repression in theology and against repression (1) of in- intellect, and during the second half against repression (2) of political in politics and the rights of man. The former tendency tellect and rights. appears in the rationalism and skepticism of such men as Voltaire and the 'encyclopedists,' while the latter becomes evident chiefly in the emotionalism and ‘naturalism' of Rousseau. Although these aspects of the |