defectives and delinquents, to be replaced by farming, gardening, and kindred domestic industries. At the present time, moreover, the schools for delinquents and defectives in the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle West, and most of the Southern states, have the Fellenberg training, though without much grasp of the educational principles involved. Finally, there has also been a growing tendency in the twentieth century to employ industrial training or trade education for the sake of holding pupils longer and efficiency in school and increasing the efficiency of the public system. In so far as it has tended to replace the more general values of manual training, once so popular, with skill in some particular industrial process, this modern movement represents a return from the occupational work started by Froebel to the philanthropic practice of Fellenberg and Pestalozzi. of the public system. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Graves, In Modern Times (Macmillan, 1913), chap. V; and Great Educators (Macmillan, 1912), chap. IX; Monroe, Textbook (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 597-622; Parker, Modern Elementary Education (Ginn, 1912), chaps. XIII-XVI. The Leonard and Gertrude has been well arranged for English readers in the edition of Eva Channing (Heath, 1896) and How Gertrude Teaches Her Children has been translated by Lucy E. Holland and Frances C. Turner (Bardeen, 1898). The standard English treatises on Pestalozz are Guimps, R. de, Pestalozzi, His Aim and Work (Appleton, 1890); Holman, H., Pestalozzi (Longmans, 1908); Krüsi, H., Pestalozzi, His Life, Work, and Influence (American Book Co., 1875); Pinloche, A., Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary School (Scribner, 1901), and, more recently, Green, J. A., Life and Work of Pestalozzi (Clive, London, 1913) and Pestalozzi's Educational Writings (Longmans, Green, 1912). Monroe, W. S.. has furnished an interesting History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United States (Bardeen, 1907). The Institutions of De Fellenberg were fully described by King, W. (London, 1842); and by Barnard, H., in his American Journal of Education, vol. III, pp. 591-596; XIII, 323-331; and XXVI, 359-368. CHAPTER XXIII DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OUTLINE During the second quarter of the nineteenth century a third period in the educational history of America, marked by further democratization and a great expansion of public education, appeared. It began with an awakening generally known as 'the revival of common schools,' which was most noticeable in New England. Here, owing to the attacks made upon him by reactionaries, Horace Mann was the most conspicuous reformer; while Henry Barnard, through his American Journal of Education, enabled educators to look beyond the educational experience of America. But the influence of this awakening was also felt in every other section of the United States. It was followed by a steady growth in universal education, state support and control, local supervision, and the organization of normal schools in New England and the Middle states. In the Northwest, common school advocates overcame the opposition of settlers from states not committed to public education, and in the further expansion of the United States progress in common school sentiment has kept pace with the settlement of the country. The South made considerable progress during the early years of the awakening, and while the Civil War crushed its educational facilities, the struggle for public education has since been won. The Third Period in American Education.-Interest in the improved methods of Pestalozzi and other re of democratic ideals and ex tension of state systems of schools. formers that was manifesting itself everywhere in the United States during the second quarter of the nineteenth century seems to have been but one phase of a much larger movement. It was about this time that a third period in American education, which was marked by the development of democratic ideals and the exten- Development sion of state systems of public schools, may be said to have begun. During the period of 'transition,' we found (chap. XXI), half a dozen of the states had started an organization of common schools, and in a dozen others permanent school funds had been established, an influential minority of leading citizens were constantly advocating universal education, and public interest in the matter was evidently increasing. But the consummation of a regular system was still much hindered by sectarian_jealousies, by the conception of public schools as institutions for paupers and the consequent custom of allowing private schools to share in public funds, by the unwillingness of the wealthy to be taxed locally for the benefit of other people's children, and, in New England, by the division of the system into autonomous districts and the interference of petty politics. Hence, while much progress had been made since the early days of 'transplantation' of European ideals and institutions, there was still much need of the expansion and further democratization that now began to appear. Of the rapid development that took place during this final period of Americanization, much was accomplished before the middle of the nineteenth century, but educational progress continued through the final decade. Early Leaders in the Common School Revival.-The educational awakening with which the beginning of this Storm center and Connecti cut. third period seems to be marked, has been generally known as 'the common school revival.' It first became Massachusetts evident during the latter part of the decade between 1830 and 1840, and had its storm center in Massachusetts and Connecticut. While it greatly furthered the cause of public education everywhere, because of the decadence into which New England had fallen, the demand for an educational awakening was strongest there. In this revival the most conspicuous figure was probably Horace Mann, but there were several leaders in the field before him, many were contemporaneous, and the work was expanded and deepened by others of distinction long after he withdrew from the scene. For a score of years before Mann appeared, definite preparation for the movement had been in progress, and the labors of the individuals and associations engaged in these endeavors tablish a train- should be briefly noted. Many of the reformers seem to have recommended an improvement in methods through the creation of an institution for training teachers, thus anticipating one of the greatest achievements of Mann. Actual attempts at a private normal school were even made by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall at Concord, Vermont (1823), Andover, Massachusetts (1830), and Plymouth, New Hampshire (1837). Efforts to es ing institution. Articles in educational journals. A number of educational journals, moreover, published articles on schoolbooks, the methods of Lancaster, Pestalozzi, Neef, and Fellenberg, the infant and Sunday schools, physical education, European school systems, and a variety of other timely topics and reforms. Among these progressive publications were the American Journal of Education, edited by William Russell from 1826– 1830, and then continued from 1831 to 1839, as the |