The government (vilayet) of Constantinople contains a population of about 1,200,000 inhabitants, but it comprises Ismidt Chataldja and the neighbouring environs. Constantinople itself contained in 1885, 873,565 inhabitants.

4. The Lebanon is governed by a Mutessarrif (Christian), and has a special government (450,000 inhabitants); chief town, Beit ed din.

Syria was in 1887 divided into two vilayets, one having Damascus as its capital and the other Beyrout.

See BULGARIA, EGYPT, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Over Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Novibazar, and Egypt the suzerainty is only nominal. The island of Cyprus is nominally under Turkish suzerainty, but in reality under the entire control of Great Britain, which pays to the Sultan annually a certain proportion of the revenue. (See Great Britain.)

Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenurenamely, 1st, as Miri,' or Crown lands; 2nd, as 'Vacouf,' or pious foundations; 3rd, as 'Mulikaneh,' or Crown grants; and 4th, as 'Mülk,' or freehold property. The first description, the 'mìri,' or Crown lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to the Crown. The second form of tenure, the vacouf,' was instituted originally to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools; but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for several generations, and the 'vacouf' lands have mostly been seized by Government officials. The third class of landed property, the 'malikaneh,' was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recompense for the military service required of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form of tenure, the 'mülk,' or freehold property, does not exist to a great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the neighbourhood of villages is 'mülk,' which the peasants purchase from time to time from the Government.

Trade and Commerce.

The following table gives (100 piastres=£T1), according to the Turkish Custom-House, the value of the trade of Turkey in 1886-87 and 1887-88 (March 13 to March 12), according to countries.

The table must only be considered an approximate estimate; arms and military engines, as well as articles destined for schools and churches, agricultural machines and implements, and machinery for railways are free of duty, and are not included.

Tobacco exported abroad is not included in this table; the Director of the General Debt states that the quantity exported in 1884-85 amounted to 8,913,088 kilos., in 1885-86 to 11,521,126 kilos, in 1886-87 11,688,052 kilos., in 1887-88, 10,373,217 kilos. The principal exports and imports for 1887-88 are as follows:

EXPORTS, 1887-88.

:

The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish Empire, in Europe and Asia, and Great Britain during the five years from 1883 to 1887 is shown in the following

The staple article of export of the Turkish Empire to the United Kingdom, in recent years, has been corn. The corn exports

in 1876 were 3,775,5281.; in 1880, 171,4227.; in 1882, 747,9397.; in 1884, 1,474,0427.; in 1885, 960,4017.; in 1886, 386,7741.; in 1887, 132,0531. Next to corn in value stand wool and goat's hair, valonia, opium, and raisins. Of wool and goat's hair, the exports to the United Kingdom in the year 1884 amounted to 1,289,115.; to 925,3087. in 1885; to 1,326,1487. in 1886; to 955,3787. in 1887; of valonia (dye-stuff), to 462,0527. in 1884; 395,8851. in 1885; 389,541l. in 1886; 358,2457. in 1887; of opium, to 291,4227. in 1884; 420,4617. in 1885; 239,6627. in 1886; 252,3997. in 1887; and of fruit, chiefly raisins and figs, to 850,8821. in 1884; 787,1627. in 1885; 651,559. in 1886; 851,0471. in 1887.

The most important article of British export to Turkey is manufactured cotton. The exports of cotton and cotton yarn

amounted to 4,875,0081. in 1876; to 6,087,6377. in 1878; to 4,669,8697. in 1885; to 4,426,9267. in 1886; to 4,231,7267. in 1887. Besides cotton goods, the only notable articles of British export were woollens, of the value of 338,4601.; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 218,271.; copper, wrought and unwrought, 121,4107.; coals, 160,7547.; machinery, 63,3961., in the year 1887.

The total average yearly import into Turkey for 1878-82 was 16,000,000l., against a yearly average of 16,780,000l. for 1882-86. The proportion from Great Britain was 45.30 per cent. of the whole for the first period, and 44.30 per cent. for the second, showing a slight falling off in the proportion. On the other hand, that of Austro-Germany, which was 14.90 per cent. in 1878-82, showed in 1882-86 a great increase to 19.50 per cent. The imports from France have fallen off from 15.30 per cent. to 13.50 per cent.

The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire, according to Lloyd's Register, in 1888 consisted of 85 steamers (each of 100 tons or upwards) of 38,740 tons, and 757 sailing vessels of 143,519 tons. In 1887-88 (March to February) the Ottoman ports of the Mediterranean and Black Sea were visited by 174,338 vessels of 27,581,927 tons, those of the Red Sea by 3,650 vessels of 538,945 tons, and those of the Persian Gulf by 1,173 vessels of 162,159 tons. Constantinople alone was visited by 32,451 vessels of 8,788,053 tons, of which 4,713 vessels of 4,973,484 tons were English. Arranged according to order of flag, the tonnage of vessels which visited the Mediterranean ports and those of the Black Sea were as follows:English, 9,274,752; Ottoman, 4,810,533; Austro-Hungarian, 3,722,122; French, 2,979,457; Greek, 2,425,124; Russian, 2,030,714; Italian, 956,537; Egyptian, 749,366; Swedish, 208,587; German, 163,833; sundries, 260,902.

Since the summer of 1888 Turkey has been in direct railway communication with the rest of Europe. The main lines start from Constantinople and from Salonica. From this latter port is now the nearest route to Egypt.

On the next page is a list of the various lines in Europe (including Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia) and Asia which were open for traffic in 1888.

The length of telegraph lines in Turkey in 1884 was 14,617 miles, and the length of wires 26,060 miles. The total number of despatches carried from March 13, 1882, to March 12, 1883, was 1,259,133, of which 475,991 were official despatches, 1,009,322 internal, and 249,811 international. There were also received in transit 44,736 despatches. The number of telegraph offices amounted to 691 in Europe and Asia.