In addition to the grant these schools derive an income from endowments, school fees, local rates, voluntary subscriptions, and other sources. The total receipts of the school boards in England and Wales in 1897 was 10,072,5187.; in Scotland (including higher class schools), 2, 413,3797.; and in Ireland that of the schools under the Commissioners of National Education was 1,386,6157.

Justice and Crime.

ENGLAND AND WALES.

The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery, more popularly known as 'assizes,' and the Central Criminal Court. Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty sessional court house, the Lord Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metropolitan or borough police magistrate or other stipendiary magistrate sitting in a court house, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter sessions are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can be held at other times, and are then called 'general sessions.' Two justices constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Certain boroughs have a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in quarter sessions assembled, in which the recorder of the borough is the judge. The assize courts are held four times a year in various towns throughout the country by 'commissioners' nominated by the Crown. These commissioners are generally judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice, but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good standing are appointed. The trial takes place before a single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is the court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the City of London and a large surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve times a year, and more often if necessary. The Recorder and the Common Serjeant, and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of London Court, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by the judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases are reserved. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor offences. Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional court before being tried at the sessions or the assizes. To every sessions, assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal Court the sheriff cites 24 of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand jury examines the bill of indictment against the accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses

for the prosecution, and if they think a prima facie case for trial is made out they endorse the bill a true bill.' All criminal trials, except those which come before a court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a petty jury of twelve men. Except on some highly technical point of procedure there is no appeal in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the same crime after a petty jury has found him 'not guilty.' On a conviction the judge can, if he think fit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court for Crown Cases Reserved. This Court is formed by five or more judges of the High Court, and can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other method of securing the revision of a sentence is by the royal prerogative, exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be modified or annulled. Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen, but in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a Cabinet minister, ex-officio president of the House of Lords, and goes out with the ministry) and the Lord Chief Justice are appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.

SCOTLAND.

The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less frequently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the circuit towns. One judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competent court in cases of treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers, and generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is by statute directed to be inflicted; and it has moreover an inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law or statute, and such as have never previously come before the courts and are not within any statute.

The sheriff of each county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes occurring within the county which infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused is, under the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly or in part disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the peace have jurisdiction in petty cases occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number of minor offences under various statutes.

IRELAND.

In Ireland persons charged with crime are first brought before the petty sessions court, which must consist of at least two ordinary justices of the peace, one of whom may be a stipendiary-commonly called a resident magistrate. Then if the charge be trifling it may be disposed of, the prisoner, if convicted, having a right of appeal to the quarter sessions or recorder's court (according as it is in a borough or in the county), provided he is fined more than twenty shillings or sentenced to a longer imprisonment than one month (Petty Sessions Act, sec. 24). If the charge be of a more serious character it must either be dismissed or sent for trial to the quarter sessions or recorder's court, or to the assizes, as in England. There is this difference, however, between quarter sessions in Ireland and in England: in England they are presided over by an unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer and who is elected by his fellow

justices of the peace for the county; while in Ireland they are presided over by a paid official, who must be a barrister, whose decision on points of law binds the court, who is appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil bill court of the county, which corresponds to the English county court. The assizes are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court of Justice. In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes the trial is by jury in all cases save appeals from petty sessions. Under the Crimes Act witnesses and persons suspected of crime may be interrogated before a secret court of inquiry; but admissions then made are not evidence against the persons making them. Prisoners may be convicted before two resident magistrates specially appointed to hear cases under the Crimes Act, and in cases where the sentence exceeds a month, convicted persons have a right of appeal to the county chairman at quarter sessions.

The number of criminal offenders committed for trial and convicted, in each of the three kingdoms, was as follows in five years:

The following table shows the strength of the police force in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland :

There is a Poor Law, under a variety of statutes, applicable to the Three Kingdoms, by which paupers, under certain conditions, are to be relieved in their own houses or lodged in workhouses or poor-houses built for the purpose. The law is administered by the Local Government Board, through Boards of Guardians elected for the purpose. England and Wales, including the Metropolis and the municipal boroughs, are divided into 650 poor law unions, for each of which there is elected a Board of Guardians. In some cases the union consists of only one parish; in others several are included according to population. In urban districts and in the Metropolis guardians are separately elected, but in rural districts the rural district councillors act as guardians for the parishes they represent on the district council. Guardians are elected on the same popular franchise as district councillors. In every civil parish overseers are appointed whose duty it is to make and collect the poor rate. In urban districts, which include boroughs, the local authority raise and collect rates for local government purposes, but in rural districts and rural parishes the funds for this purpose are, as a general rule, taken from the poor-rate.

The following table shows the total amount expended in relief of the poor for the last five years (ended March 25 for England and Ireland, and May 14 for Scotland). For Scotland, the amount includes expenditure on buildings, but not from loans :

The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and 'casual poor' in receipt of relief in the several unions and parishes of England and Wales was as follows on January 1 of the last five years :—

The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive of casual poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland on January 14 of the last five years, is shown in the subjoined table :—

The subjoined table gives the number of indoor and outdoor paupers, and the total including others in blind and deaf and dumb asylums-in receipt of relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week in January in each of the last five years :

The following tables show the total amounts of the estimated and actual Imperial revenue and expenditure of the United