Turkey. Recognised by the Turkish Government are the adherents of seven non-] -Mahometan creeds-namely: 1. Latins, Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the empire, and proselytes among Armenians; Bulgarians, and others ; 2. Greeks; 3. Armenians; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans ; 5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon ; 6. Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians; 7. Jews. These seven religious denominations are invested with the privilege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable influence.

The following shows the population of Constantinople (1885), arranged in order of religious beliefs, viz.: Mussulmans, 384,910; Greeks, 152,741; Armenians, 149,590; Bulgarians, 4,377; Roman Catholics (native), 6,442; Greek Latins, 1,082; Protestants (native), 819; Jews, 44,361; Foreigners, 129,243. Total, 873,565. In the Turkish Islands of the Egean Sea the population is mostly Christian: 296,800 Christians to 27,200 Mussulmans. In various parts of Asiatic Turkey the estimates are: Asia Minor, Mussulmans, 7,179,900 Armenians, 576,200; other Christians, 972,300; Jews, &c., 184,600; Armenia, Mussulmans, 1,795,800; Armenians, 480,700; other Christians, 165,200; Jews, &c., 30,700; Aleppo, Mussulmans, 792,500; Armenians, 49,000; other Christians, 134,300; Jews, &c., 20,000; Beyrout, Mussulmans, 230,200; Armenians, 6,100; other Christians, 160,400; Jews, &c., 136,900; Lebanon, Mussulmans, 30,400; Christians, 319,300; Jews, &c., 49,800. The Mahometan clergy are subordinate to the Sheïk-ul-Islam. Their offices are hereditary, and they can only be removed by Imperial iradé. A priesthood, however, in the strict sense of a separate class, to whom alone the right of officiating in religious services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey.

The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a consequence, public schools have been long established in most considerable Turkish towns; while medresses,' or colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the principal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establishments is rather limited.

The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, of which 379 are in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied gratis. The private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was 30,200,000 piastres (251,0007.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to

20,000,000 piastres (166,0007.). The expenses are reckoned at 15,000,000 piastres (125,0007.). The stipend of the sheïk-ul-Islam 7,031,520 piastres (59,0007.), and those of the Naïbs and Muftis 7,876,646 piastres (66,0007.), are paid by the State. The principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, and which is known under the name of Vacouf. Three-fourths of the urban property of the Empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die without direct heirs the property reverts to the Church.

Finance.

A general view of the various sources of the public revenue of Turkey and of the branches of expenditure is given in the following tables, in which the average revenue and expenditure (including supplementary credits) for the years 1308-1310 (1892-93 to 1894-95) are shown, together with the official estimates for the year 1313 (ending February 28, 1898):

1 Salt, tobacco, spirits, stamps, fisheries, silk and other sources mostly assigned to the Ottoman Debt Administration.

2 Including those assigned to the Debt Administration.

The estimates for the year 1897-98 thus show a surplus of £T81,912. The estimated expenditure presupposes retrenchment, especially in the military department. No provision is made for extraordinary expenditure. On the other hand, revenues to be derived from monopolies and the increase of customs receipts consequent on new commercial treaties have not been taken into account.

The Report on Turkish finance presented to the Sultan by Sir Edgar Vincent in December, 1896, (leaving out of account the revenues assigned to the Debt Administration and the corresponding expenditure) puts the revenue under the control of the Ministry of Finance in the year 1306 (1890-91) at £T14,368,700 and the ordinary expenditure at £T14,137,940, showing a surplus of £T230,760 on the ordinary budget. In that year, however, the extraordinary expenditure, chiefly for military purposes, amounted to £T779,000, so that on the whole there was a deficit of £T548,200. For succeeding years up to 1311 (1895-96) the annual deficit is put at £T1,000,000 which was met by loans less, however, in amount than the sums which went towards the sinking fund. On the basis of these results, the normal revenue for future years at the disposal of the Ministry of Finance is estimated at £T13,961,700, and the corresponding expenditure at £T15,354,000, the probable deficit being £T1,392,300, a deficit which by administrative and financial reforms may, it is stated, be easily avoided. The customs revenue for 1894-95 amounted to £T2, 123,580; for 1895-96, £T1,876,416. The following table shows the course of Turkish indebtedness:

The loans of 1854, 1871, and 1877 were secured on the Egyptian tribute ; that of 1878 (issued to consolidate advances by Galata bankers) at first on the Customs but afterwards by a first charge on the indirect contributions conceded to the bondholders. The loan of 1855 was guaranteed by France and England, and that of 1869 of 2,480,000l. was redeemed by October, 1873. The Ottoman Government being unable to meet its liabilities, made an arrangement with its creditors, confirmed by the Iradé of December 8/20, 1881. All the loans then outstanding (with the exceptions mentioned) were with the arrears of interest reduced and converted into the four series denoted by the letters A, B, C, D. A Council of Administration at Constantinople was appointed, and to it were handed over for distribution among the bondholders the funds derived from the excise duties, from the Bulgarian, Eastern Roumelian, and Cyprus tribute, and from the tax on Persian tobacco. sum of 536,3631. was to be deducted for the service of the debt of 1878, and the balance was to be applied to the service of the four series, four-fifths to interest and one-fifth to amortisation. The interest was never to exceed 4 per cent., and any surplus was to be handed over to the government. The interest paid has only been 1 per cent, but the reserve fund has accumulated to 308,2601. The Council of Administration now undertakes the service of all the Turkish loans except those secured on the Egyptian tribute, the guaran. teed loan of 1855, the loan of 1886 secured on the Customs, and the Tumbeki loan of 1894 (900,0007.).

The

The amounts collected by the Council of Administration in two years have been :

The condition of the Turkish debt was as follows in the middle of

Of debts which are not loans, the sum, in 1896, according to Sir Edgar Vincent's Report, was £T31,551,958, including £T31,228,464, the outstanding amount of the Russian War Indemnity, £T50,000 of indemnity to Russian subjects, and £T273,494 to the Damascus Serghis Railway.

Defence.

I. FRONTIERS.

Turkey occupies the South-Eastern corner of Europe and the Western portion of Asia.

The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified of late years. European Turkey has for frontier States in the north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Eastern Roumelia. The frontiers are mountainous towards the east, but at many points passage is easy.

The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by Thessaly, the Ægean Sea, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, the shores of which are strongly fortified.

Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles.

The boundaries to the west are the Archipelago, the Mediterranean, Arabia Petrea, and the Red Sea. Its limits to the south are Central Arabia and the Persian Gulf, those to the east Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold near the Russian frontier being Erzeroum.

II. ARMY.

In Turkey all Mussulmans over 20 years of age are liable to military ser vice, and this liability continues for 20 years. Non-Mahometans are not liable, but pay an exemption tax of about six shillings per head, levied on males of all ages. Nomad Arabs, though liable, furnish no recruits, and many nomad Kurds evade service. The army consists of (1) the Nizam, or Regular Army, and its reserves; (2) the Redif or Landwehr; and (3) the Mustahfuz or Landsturm. Conscripts are divided into the first and second levies. The former serve 6 years in the Nizam-4 with the colours and 2 in the reserve; 8 years in the Redif-4 in the first ban and 4 in the second; and 6 years in the Mustahfuz; 20 years in all. The latter consist of those not drawn for the contingent. They form what is called the Tertib Sani and the Muinsiz; they constitute part of the reserve, undergoing from 6 to 9 months' drill in the first year of service, and 30 days' drill at their homes in subsequent years.

The whole empire is divided into 7 army districts, with which are associated 7 corps d'armée called Ordus, with their headquarters respectively at:-1, Constantinople; 2, Adrianople; 3, Monastir; 4, Erzinjan; 5, Damascus ; 6, Baghdad; 7, Sanaa (the Yemen). The troops of the 7th district are recruited chiefly from the 4th and 5th districts, while the garrisons of Crete and Tripoli are recruited from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th districts.

The Nizam infantry is organised in companies, battalions, regiments,