Spain,

Russia,

curred, the schools came under ecclesiastical control and had little influence upon the people. Nevertheless, there were evidences of interest in the new doctrines. General Jullien came to Yverdon to study the methods, and issued two commendatory reports, which induced some thirty French pupils to go to Pestalozzi's institute. Chavannes also published a treatise upon the Pestalozzian methods in 1805. Three years later the philosopher, de Biran, founded a Pestalozzian school under the management of a certain Barraud, whom he had sent to study under Pestalozzi. These efforts, however, had little effect upon education, and the Pestalozzian principles did not make much headway in France up to the revolution of 1830. After that time they rapidly became popular, especially through Victor Cousin. This famous professor, who was later minister of public instruction, issued in 1835 a Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia, which showed the great merit of Pestalozzianism in the elementary schools of that country. The other great minister, Guizot, had likewise recommended the Prussian schools as the best type for the reform movement, and had shown himself most zealous in training teachers for their vocation after the ideals of Pestalozzi. Spain at first took kindly to the new methods. A few schools were founded on these principles, and a number of pupils sent to Pestalozzi through the government, but a reaction soon occurred and education was turned over to the ecclesiastical authorities. In Russia the czar showed himself interested in Pestalozzi's work, a school similar to the 'institutes' was founded, and a former assistant of Pestalozzi became tutor to the royal princes, but probably nothing permanent was accom

plished. Schools were also established before long in Italy, Denmark, and Holland by Pestalozzians, but none of them met with much success, and continental Europe in general adopted the new principles indirectly from Germany.

In England the influence of Pestalozzi was large, but and England. the use made of his methods was not altogether happy. The private school opened by Mayo after his return from Yverdon employed object teaching in several subjects, and a popular textbook, entitled Lessons on Objects, was written by his sister, Elizabeth.1 This book of Miss Mayo's consisted of encyclopedic lessons on the arts and sciences arranged in definite series, and much beyond the comprehension of children from six to eight years old, for whom it was intended. Together with several texts of a similar sort, it had a wide influence in formalizing object teaching and spreading it rapidly in this form. As we have seen,1 the Mayos were also interested in infant schools, and when 'The Home and Colonial School Society' was organized in 1836, they combined the Pestalozzian methods with those of the infant school. Thus through the model and training schools of this society formalized Pestalozzianism was extended through England and America.

lozzianism was introWilliam McClure through

duced by

Pestalozzianism in the United States.-Pestalozzian- In the United States Pestaism began to appear in the United States as early as the first decade of the nineteenth century. It was introduced not only from the original centers in Switzerland, but indirectly in the form it had assumed in Germany, France, England, and other countries. The instances of its appearance were sporadic and seem to have been but

1 See pp. 68f.

Joseph Neef;

a large number of articles and transla

tions were

little connected at any time. The earliest presentation was that made from the treatise of Chavannes in 1805 by William McClure. This gentleman was a retired ScotchAmerican merchant and a man of science, who had, upon the invitation of Napoleon, gone to visit the orphanage at Paris directed by Joseph Neef, a former teacher at Burgdorf. Mr. McClure afterward spent much time at the institute in Yverdon, and by his writings, articles, and financial support did much to make the new principles known in the United States. In 1806 he induced Neef to come to America and become his "master's apostle in the new world". Neef maintained an institution at Philadelphia for three years and afterward founded and taught schools in Louisville, Kentucky, and other parts of the country. In 1823 he went with McClure and Owen to New Harmony, Indiana, where an attempt was made to unite Pestalozzianism with the principles of the 'infant school'.1 But his imperfect acquaintance with English and with American character and his frequent migrations prevented his personal influence from being greatly felt, and the two excellent works that he published upon applications of the Pestalozzian methods were given scant attention.2

A large variety of literature, describing the new education, and translating the accounts of Chavannes, Jullien, Cousin, and a number of the German educationalthe subject; ists, also appeared in the American educational journals and applicafrom 1820 to 1860. The American Journal of Education, edited by William Russell, 1826-1831, and its successor,

published on

tions were

made by

1 See p. 65.

2 For a further account of Neef's work, see Education, Vol. XIV, pp. 449-461, or W. S. Monroe's Pestalozzian Movement, Chaps. III-VI.

1

The American Annals of Education, edited by William C. Colburn, Guyot, ParWoodbridge, 1831-1839, were especially active in giving ker, Mason, descriptions and personal observations of the Pestaloz- and others. zian schools in Europe. Both in articles for his American Journal of Education (1855-1881) 1 and in his practical work, Henry Barnard lauded the Pestalozzian methods. Returned travelers, like Professor John Griscom, published accounts of their visits and experiences at Yverdon and Burgdorf, and such lecturers as the Reverend Charles Brooks began to suggest the new principles as a remedy for our educational deficiencies. Pestalozzi's objective methods and the oral instruction resulting from them were used in various subjects by a number of educators. For example, the methods advocated in arithmetic were introduced into America by Warren Colburn. He spread 'mental arithmetic' throughout the country, and in his famous First Lessons in Arithmetic on the Plan of Pestalozzi, published first in 1821, he even printed the 'table of units.' The formalized 'Grube method' of arithmetic, which is for the most part based upon Pestalozzi's principle of reducing every sense perception to its elements, also became very popular in the United States about 1870, and remained a fetish for almost a generation. The Pestalozzi-Ritter method in geography was early presented in the United States through the institute lectures and textbooks of Arnold Guyot, who had been a pupil of Ritter and came to America from Switzerland in 1848. The promotion of geographic method along the same lines was later more successfully performed by Francis Wayland Parker in his training of teachers and his work on How to Teach Geography. Colonel Parker 1 See pp. 184ff.

The most in

fluential

movements,

has also had several successful pupils, who are to-day largely continuing the Pestalozzian tradition. The Pestalozzian method in music was brought into the Boston schools and elsewhere about 1836 by Lowell Mason, who was influenced by the works of Nägeli. In several of the subjects taught in their school, Bronson Alcott and his brother urged and practiced the methods of Pestalozzi, and David P. Page, as principal of the New York State Normal School, utilized the spirit and many of the methods of the Swiss reformer.

The most influential propaganda of the Pestalozzian doctrines in general, however, came through the account however, were of the German school methods in the Seventh Annual brought about by Horace Report (1843) of Horace Mann,1 and through the inauguenth Annual ration of the 'Oswego methods' by Dr. Edward A.

Mann's Sev

Report

Sheldon. Mann spoke most enthusiastically of the success of the Prussian-Pestalozzian system of education and hinted at the need of a radical reform along the same lines in America. The report caused a great sensation, and was bitterly combated by a group of thirty-one Boston schoolmasters and by conservative sentiment throughout the country. Nevertheless, the suggested reforms were largely effected, and were carried much further by the successors of Mann in the secretaryship of the Masand by Shel- sachusetts State Board of Education.2 Dr. Sheldon, on don's 'Oswego methods.' the other hand, caught his Pestalozzian inspiration from Toronto, Canada, where he became acquainted with the formalized methods of the Mayos through publications of the Home and Colonial School Society. He resolved to introduce the principles of Pestalozzi into the Oswego schools, of which he was at that time superintendent, and 2 See pp. 256ff. See pp. 68f. and 149.

1 See p. 173.

3