in the agricultural in stitute, teachers, The studies arithmetic, religion, drawing, singing, history, geography, natural history, botany, and geometry, or about the same range of subjects as was dealt with in Pestalozzi's the school for 'institute.' The curriculum in the school for girls must girls, have been very similar, except that the industrial work consisted of the household arts, cooking, washing, cleaning, spinning, and knitting. In the course for the course for teachers, beside manual labor on the farm, special training was given in grammar, religion, drawing, geography, history of Switzerland, agriculture, and 'anthropology,' which included physiology, hygiene, and first aid to the injured. Those who seemed qualified for a more thorough course were allowed to elect work in the literary institute. The professional training consisted in a thorough study of the subject-matter they were to teach, lessons on communicating instruction, and practice teaching under inspection, followed by criticism and discussion. The education for the higher classes in the literary institute included some of the usual work in the classics, but stressed the modern languages, sciences, drawing, music, and practical work. The physical training was given through gymnastics, military exercises, swimming, riding, walking, and skating. As in the other courses, religious studies also had an important place. and the literary institute. Industrial Training in the Schools of Europe. The educational institutions of Fellenberg were well managed and proved very successful. The number of pupils in the agricultural institute soon increased from a mere family circle to over one hundred and fifty, and the idea of education through industrial training spread rapidly. While, after the death of Fellenberg in 1844, the schools at Fellenberg, Hofwyl, through mismanagement and political changes, While the schools at Hofwyl disap peared after the death of trial princi Europe, gradually declined, their principles became embodied in their induseducation everywhere. Various types of industrial edu- ples spread cation came to supplement academic courses, and ex- through tend the work of the school to a larger number of pupils. Thus the tendency of modern civilization to care for the education of the unfortunate through industrial training has sprung from the philanthropic spirit of Pestalozzi and his practical collaborator, Fellenberg, and their endeavors to furnish educational opportunities for all. The poor, the defective, and the delinquent have, through vocational training, been redeemed and given a chance in life, and many children have been kept in school that would inevitably have fallen by the wayside. Public schools, special industrial schools, orphanages, institutions for the deaf and blind, reformatories, and even prisons have yielded rich harvests because of Pestalozzi's first sowing. Movements of this sort have been apparent in all advanced countries. The industrial institutions rapidly increased in Switzerland, beginning in 1816 with the Switzerland, school in the neighboring district of Meykirch. In 1832 a cantonal teachers' association was formed at Berne, with Fellenberg as president and Wehrli as vice president, to reform the methods of organization and instruction current in Switzerland. Every canton soon had its 'farm school,' in which, wrote Henry Barnard, "the school instruction occupies three hours in the summer and four in winter; the remainder of the day being devoted to work in the field or garden, or at certain seasons of the year and for a class of pupils, in some indoor trade or craft." Industrial training was also introduced into most of the Swiss normal schools. In Germany the industrial work Germany, France, suggested by Pestalozzi and Fellenberg came into successful operation in many of the orphanages and most of the reform schools. A most striking example of the latter was the 'House of Redemption,' opened in 1833 near Hamburg. Here boys and girls of criminal tendencies were given an industrial training and then apprenticed, and comparatively few ever lapsed into evil ways after leaving the school. Later industrial education was taken up by the Fortbildungsschulen ('continuation schools') of the regular system.1 At the reform and continuation schools of France industrial training has long formed the distinctive element in the course. Educators and statesmen of England, especially Lord Brougham, likewise early commended the work of Fellenberg, and industrial training shortly found a foothold in that country. There and England. was opened in 1835 at Queenswood Hall, Hampshire, the famous George Edmondson school, which was provided with agricultural and trade departments, including blacksmithing and printing. In 1839 the Battersea Training Establishment was opened upon the same basis as the Swiss normal schools. At the well-known Red Hill school and farm for young criminals, established in 1849, and other similar institutions, vocational training has also proIn the United duced remarkable results. States 'man- to enable stu Industrial Institutions in the United States.-The industrial work of the Pestalozzi-Fellenberg system began to appear in the United States about the close of the first dents to earn quarter of the nineteenth century. After that, for twenty through col- years or so, there sprang up a large number of institutions of secondary or higher grade with 'manual labor' features in addition to the literary work. The primary their way lege and to preserve their health; 1 See p. 288, footnote 2. object of the industrial work in these institutions was to enable students to earn their way through school or college and recruit sectarian ranks during a period of strong denominational controversy. The other great argument for this training was that it secured physical exercise for those under the strain of severe intellectual labor. It was the first serious academic recognition of the need of a 'sound mind in a sound body,' and did much to overcome the prevailing tendency of students toward tuberculosis and to furnish a sane substitute for the escapades and pranks in which college life abounded. The first of these manual labor institutions were established in the New England and Middle States between 1820 and 1830, and within a dozen years the manual labor system was adopted in theological schools, colleges, and academies from Maine to Tennessee. The success of this feature at Andover Theological Seminary, where it was begun in 1826 for 'invigorating and preserving health, without any reference to pecuniary profit,' was especially influential in causing it to be extended. Much impetus was also given the movement through the writings and addresses of Rev. Elias Cornelius, secretary of the American Educational Society, who perceived the terrible inroads made upon health by education without systematic exercise. From 1830 to 1832 many articles and lectures describing and commending the Fellenberg system were read before learned societies and published in the leading educational journals. The 'Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions,' founded in 1831, appointed a general agent to visit the chief colleges in the Middle West and South, call attention to the value of manual labor, and issue a report upon the subject. industrial Little attention, however, was given in the literary in stitutions to the pedagogical principles underlying this but, as mate- work. As material conditions improved and formal soimproved, the cial life developed, the impracticability of the scheme was features were realized, and the industrial side of these institutions was given up. This physical phase was then replaced by college athletics. By 1840-50 most of the schools and colleges that began as 'manual labor institutes' had become purely literary. given up. Industrial education has also been adopted for A further movement in industrial education was found in the establishment of such schools as Carlisle, Hampton, and Tuskegee, which adopted this training as a solution peculiar racial for peculiar racial problems. But the original idea of problems, for Pestalozzi, to secure redemption through manual labor the training of was not embodied in American institutions until the last the solution of defectives and delin quents, and quarter of the century. After 1873, when Miss Mary for increasing Carpenter, the English prison reformer, visited the United the efficiency of the public States, contract labor and factory work in the reforma system. tories began to be replaced by farming, gardening, and kindred domestic industries. At the present time, moreover, the schools for delinquents and defectives in the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle West, and most of the Southern states, have the Fellenberg training, though without much grasp of the educational principles involved. Finally, within the last decade there has also been a growing tendency to employ industrial training or trade education for the sake of holding pupils longer in school and increasing the efficiency of the public system. In so far as it has tended to replace the more general values of manual training, once so popular, with skill in some particular industrial process, this modern movement represents a return from the executive occupational work started by |