wedded to any fixed organization or practice, but it should be allowed to move with the expanding vision of the people. Each state may, therefore, constantly adapt to its own use whatever seems of value in other commonwealths or countries, and under the American plan reap the benefit of the broadest educational experience everywhere. SUPPLEMENTARY READING I. SOURCES Revised constitutions, statutes, and legislative documents, and the reports of Superintendents, Commissioners, and Boards of Education, of the various states, 1835 to the present; and the Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1867 to the present. II. AUTHORITIES BLACKMAR, F. W. History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States. BOONE, R. G. Education in the United States. Parts III and IV. History of Education in Indiana. BOONE, R. G. BOURNE, W. O. New York. BROWN, E. E. XIV-XX. History of the Public School Society of the City of The Making of Our Middle Schools. Chapters BUTLER, N. M. (Editor). Education in the United States. I. DEXTER, E. G. History of Education in the United States. HINSDALE, B. A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival. Chap. XIII. KNIGHT, E. W. The Influence of Reconstruction on Education in the South. MARTIN, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. Lectures V and VI. MAYO, A. D. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education. 1893-94, XVII; 1898-99, VIII; 1899-1900, VII; 1900-01, X; 1903, VIII and IX; 1904, XVI. MERRIWETHER, C. History of Higher Education in South Caro lina. PALMER, A. E. PRATT, D. J. RANDALL, S. S. The New York Public School. Annals of Public Education in the State of New History of the Common School System of the State of New York. Third and Fourth Periods. SMITH, C. L. History of Education in North Carolina. SMITH, W. L. STEINER, B. C. STEINER, B. C. Historical Sketch of Education in Michigan. History of Education in Maryland. STOCKWELL, T. B. History of Public Education in Rhode Island. THWING, C. F. Education in the United States since the Civil War. WICKERSHAM, J. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. Chaps. XVII-XXVIII. CHAPTER IX THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SCHOOL SYSTEMS During the and a half the leading pow past century ers of Europe have devel oped state systems of somewhat and that of may afford gestions, sug when understood in their National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada. In previous chapters (IV, VI, VIII,) we have witnessed the gradual evolution in America of state systems of universal education out of the unorganized and rather aristocratic arrangement of schools that had first been transplanted from Europe in the seventeenth century. education But development of a centralized organization of public different from schools has not been confined to the United States. Dur- each other ing the past century and a half, the leading powers of the United Europe, especially Germany, France, and England, and States, which the more recently federated Dominion of Canada, have mutual likewise organized state systems of education similar in some respects to those of the American union. All of these countries have now established universal elementary perspective. education free to all, although as yet in few instances are secondary schools also gratuitous. France alone has completely secularized its system, but the public schools of the other nations, while still including religious instruction, have been emancipated from ecclesiastical control, and are responsible to the civil authorities. In all of them school attendance is compulsory. As we have already noticed,1 accounts of this development of national systems of education by the European states have proved a great source of illumination and inspiration for America. 1 Pp. 168 and 178ff. historical In Germany the universi ties date back to the four teenth and fifteenth cen Yet the educational system in none of these countries is identical with that in the United States, but has been adapted in each case to the genius and social organization of the people concerned. Its characteristics must, therefore, be considerably modified, in order to be utilized or to prove suggestive to other nations, and can be understood only in the light of the educational history of the particular country to which it belongs. For an intelligent appreciation of these modern school systems, we must, therefore, trace the gradual development to their present form in response to the changing ideals of successive periods, although it will take us considerably back of the period we are now considering. Early History of German Educational Institutions. The earliest of the European school systems to be established upon anything like the present basis appear in the various states of Germany during the eighteenth century. Some centuries before, however, most of the elements in these educational organizations had arisen and had since ing the subse- passed through various stages of their history. The uniquent educa- versities in many instances date back to the general turies, but have been modified in character dur tional move ments; spread of these institutions in Germany during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.1 In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries they began to feel the influence of humanism and to introduce chairs of classic literature.2 During the Reformation many of them withdrew from the control of church and pope, and came under the state and the Protestant princes; and, as an outgrowth of the theological agitation, several new universities, Protestant and Catholic, were founded. By the end of the eight 3 1 See Graves, History of Education during the Transition, pp. 81f. grew up in the real-schools arose in the seventeenth; and the peo had their eenth century, as a result of the progress of 'realism,' most of the Protestant universities had come to create professorships in the natural sciences. Meanwhile Gym- the gymnasia nasien, Jesuit colleges, and other classical secondary sixteenth schools of Germany had grown up during the sixteenth century; the century out of the humanistic and religious training of the Northern Renaissance.1 But their course was somewhat modified through the development of realistic ple's schools studies, mathematics and science, in the seventeenth roots in the century, and these classical schools were complemented, Reformation. and, during the nineteenth century, rivaled by the Realschulen, or 'real-schools,' which, in their earliest form, began to spread about the middle of the eighteenth century.2 The German elementary schools, which came to be known as Volksschulen, or 'people's schools,' on the other hand, find their roots in the Reformation. Luther and his associates continually urged the education of the common people, and a rudimentary system of elementary schools began to be established by the princes in various German states during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During the latter century there was a decided tendency throughout the people's schools to add to the realistic content of the course, especially elementary instruction in science. Thus it is evident that the various 3 4 Thus the vaeducation ious stages of have grown from the top stages in the education of Germany sprang up separately, and the system has chronologically grown from the top down. down. First came the higher training of the universities, then the secondary education of the classical institutions, and last of all the people's schools. Up to the later years Until the of the eighteenth century all of these educational elements century, all 1 Op. cit., pp. 154ff. and 210ff. 2 Op. cit., pp. 290ff. 3 Op. cit., pp. 183ff. and 197ff. 4 Op. cit., p. 289. eighteenth |