produced books in imi He and his gest using these interests in the teaching of Latin. Later, followers also Basedow, together with Campe, Salzmann, and others children's of his followers, also produced a series of popular story books especially adapted to the character, interests, and Robinson needs of children. These works are all largely filled mended by with didactics, moralizing, religiosity, and scraps of tation of Crusoe, recom Rousseau. Through embody his ideas. scientific information. The best known of them is Robinson der Jüngere (Robinson Crusoe Junior), which was published by Campe in 1779. It seems to have been suggested by Rousseau's recommendation of Robinson Crusoe as a text-book, and in turn a generation later it became the model for Der Schweizerische Robinson (The Swiss Family Robinson) of Wyss, which has been so popular with children in America and elsewhere. Course and Methods of the Philanthropinum.pold, Base Eight years before this, however, Prince Leopold of dow founded Dessau had been induced to allow Basedow to found the 'Philanthropinum'at there a model school called the 'Philanthropinum,' Dessau, to which should embody that reformer's ideas. Leopold naturalistic granted him a salary of eleven hundred thalers,1 and three years later gave him an equipment of buildings, grounds, and endowment. At first Basedow had but three assistants, but later the number was considerably increased. The staff then included several very able men, such as Wölke, who had taught at Leipzig; Campe, formerly chaplain at Potsdam; Salzmann, who had been a professor at Erfurt; and Matthison, the poet. The underlying principle of the Philanthropinum was "everything according to nature.' The natural instincts and interests of the children were only to be 1 A thaler was equivalent to about three shillings, or seventy-three cents. directed and not altogether suppressed. They were to be trained as children and not as adults, and the methods of learning were to be adapted to their stage of mentality. That all of the customary unnaturalness, discomfort, and want of freedom might be eliminated, the boys were plainly dressed in sailor jackets and loose trousers, their collars were turned down and were open at the neck, and their hair was cut short and was free from powder, pomade, and hair-bags. education was tinctions were Every one was given industrial and physical tive course While universal education was believed in, and rich Universal and poor alike were to be trained, the traditional idea advocated, still obtained that the natural education of the one class but social diswas for social activity and leadership, and of the other recognized. for teaching. Consequently, the wealthy boys were to spend six hours in school and two in manual labor, while those from families of small means labored six hours and training, and studied two. Every one, however, was taught handi- a wide objec crafts, carpentry, turning, planing, and threshing, as was planned. suggested in the third book of the Emile, and there were also physical exercises and games for all. On the intellectual side, while Latin was not neglected, considerable attention was paid to the vernacular and French. According to the Elementarwerk, Basedow planned especially to create a wide objective and practical course very similar to that suggested by Comenius. It was to give some account of man, including bits of anthropology, anatomy, and physiology; of brute creation, especially the uses of domestic animals and their relation to industry; of trees and plants with their growth, culture, and products; of minerals and chemicals; of mathematical and physical instruments; and of trades, history, and commerce. He afterward admitted that he had over Languages were taught and drawing; estimated the amount of content that was possible for a child, and greatly abridged the material.1 The most striking characteristic of the school, however, by conversa- was its recognition of child interests and the consequent tion, games, improved methods. Languages were taught by speaking arithmetic by and then by reading, and grammar was not brought in until late in the course. Facility in Latin was acquired try by draw- through conversation, games, pictures, drawing, acting geography by plays, and reading on practical and interesting subjects. beginning with Similar linguistic methods had been recommended by mental meth ods; geome ing; and the home. Great expec tations were Montaigne, Ratich, and Locke, and largely worked out by Comenius, but were never before made as practical as by Basedow and his assistants. His instruction in arithmetic, geometry, geography, physics, nature study, and history was fully as progressive as that in languages, and, while continuing Rousseau's suggestions, seems to anticipate much of the 'object teaching' of Pestalozzi. Arithmetic was taught by mental methods, geometry by drawing figures accurately and neatly, and geography by beginning with one's home, and extending out into the neighborhood, the town, the country, and the continent. In a similarly direct way the pupils were instructed in matters of actual life. For example, they cast lots in the classroom to see who should have the privilege of describing the tools and processes of a trade depicted in an engraving. Influence of the Philanthropinum. The attendhad for the ance at the Philanthropinum was very small in the school, and it beginning, since the institution was regarded as an stimulus for experiment, but eventually the number of pupils rose proved a younger children. 1 The actual program of each day is given in full in Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 519f. to more than fifty. Most visitors were greatly pleased with the school, especially on account of the interested and alert appearance of the pupils. Kant had such high expectations of its results as to declare in 1777 that it meant "not a slow reform, but a quick revolution,” and felt that "by the plan of organization it must of itself throw off all the faults which belong to its beginning." He afterward admitted that he had been too optimistic, but he still felt that the experiment had been well worth while, and had paved the way for better things. Although it may not have served well for older pupils, it was certainly excellent in its stimulus to children under ten or twelve, who too often are naturally averse to books, and can be captured only by such appeals to the physical activities, the senses, and other primary interests. thropinum closed, but sprang up cluding the famous school of Salzmann at Schnepfen Basedow, however, proved temperamentally unfit to The Philandirect the institution. He soon left, and began to teach was soon privately in Dessau and write educational works along similar inthe lines he had started. Joachim Heinrich Campe stitutions (1746-1818), who first superseded him, withdrew within throughout a year to found a similar school at Hamburg. Institu- Germany, intions of the same type sprang up elsewhere, and some of them had a large influence upon education. The most striking and enduring of these schools was that established in 1784 by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) at Schnepfenthal under the patronage of the royal family of Saxe-Gotha. The natural surroundingsmountains, valleys, lakes-were most favorable for the purpose of the institution, and much attention was given to nature study, 'lessons on things,' organized excursions, gardening, agricultural work, and care of domestic thal and those of Rochow at Rechahn and elsewhere. And, while the philanthropinic movement became a fad, and came animals. Manual training, gymnastics, sports, informal moral and religious culture, and other features that anticipated later developments in education also formed part of the course. During the decade before the establishment of Salzmann's school, institutions embodying many of Basedow's ideas were opened at Rechahn and his other Brandenburg estates by Baron Eberhard von Rochow (1734-1805). His schools were simply intended to improve the peasantry in their methods of farming and living, but, when this step toward universal education proved extraordinarily successful, Rochow advocated the adoption of a complete national system of schools on a nonsectarian basis. In 1793 the Philanthropinum at Dessau was closed permanently. Its teachers were scattered through Europe, and gave a great impulse to the new education. An unfortunate result of this popularity was that the Philanthropinum became a fad, and schools with this name were opened everywhere in Germany by educational mountebanks. These teachers prostituted the cerning meth- system to their own ends, degraded the profession into ods and in- a mere trade, and became the subject of much satire into the hands of mountebanks, it introduced many new ideas con dustrial training. and ridicule. Nevertheless, the philanthropinic movement seems not to have been without good results, especially when we consider the educational conditions and the pedagogy of the times. It introduced many new ideas concerning methods and industrial training into all parts of France and Switzerland, as well as Germany, and these were carefully worked out by such reformers as Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart. In this way there were embodied in education the first positive results of the destructive 'naturalism' of Rousseau, and |