Schools for Boys in France (Great Britain, Board of Educa tion, Special Reports, II, 24). KLEMM, L. R. European Schools. Pp. 317-391. PARSONS, J. R., JR. French Schools through American Eyes. SALMON, LUCY M. Training of Teachers in France (Educational Review, Vol. XX, pp. 383-404). SIMON, J. La reforme de l'enseignement secondaire. SMITH, ANNA T. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education. 1890-91, Vol. I, pp. 95-108; 1893-94, I, 187-201; 1894-95, I, 289-305; 1895-96, I, 635-639; 1896-97, I, 29-56; 1897-98, I, 704-749; 1898-99, I, 1095-1138; 1899-1900, II, 1712-1721; 1900-1901, I, 1082-1103; 1901, I, 1103-1109; 1902, I, 668–698; 1905, I, 76–80; 1906, I, 19–32; 1907, I, 143– 159; 1908, I, 230-238. C. ENGLAND ADAMS, F. History of the Elementary School Contest in England. BOARD OF EDUCATION. Annual Reports. COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. Annual Reports. GREENOUGH, J. C. The Evolution of the Elementary Schools of Great Britain. GREGORY, R. Elementary Education. HOLMAN, H. English National Education. HUGHES, R. E. The Making of Citizens. Chaps. III and XII. KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, J. Four Periods in Public Education. MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. DE. tion. National Education and National Life. MORLEY, J. The Struggle for National Education. NATIONAL EDUCATION UNION. Verbatim Report of the Debate in Parliament during the Progress of the Education Bill, 1870. SALMON, D. The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Cen tury. 2 SANDIFORD, P. The Training of Teachers in England and Wales (Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 32). SHARPLESS, I. English Education in Elementary and Secondary Schools. SMITH, ANNA T. Education in England (Monroe's Cyclopædia of Education, Vol. II). SMITH, ANNA T. The Education Bill of 1906 for England and Wales (U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin. 1906, No. I). D. CANADA BOARD OF EDUCATION, GREAT BRITAIN. Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. IV, A. CHAVEAU, M. L'instruction publique au Canada. EWART, J. S. The Manitoba School Question. HODGINS, J. G. Documentary History of Education in Ontario. MILLAR, J. Educational System of the Province of Ontario. MORANT, R. L. History of the Manitoba School System. (Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports, I, 23). Ross, G. W. The School System of Ontario. RYERSON, E. Report on a System of Public Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada. SMITH, ANNA T. Education in Canada (Monroe's Cyclopædia of Education, Vol. I). CHAPTER X THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT The Development of the Natural Sciences in Modern Times. The germ of the modern tendency to introduce the natural sciences into the content of education was apparent as early as Rousseau. The Emile, on its constructive side, may be held to advocate the scientific, as well as the sociological and psychological movements in modern times. Some description has been given in previous chapters of the consequent efforts to improve the ideals, organization, and methods of education in accordance with our modern knowledge of society and the mental development of the individual, and we may now turn to a more specific consideration of the gradual sciences in the expansion of the course of study and of the modern scientific movement. Such a tendency has constituted study is simply one phase one phase of the remarkable growth of natural science of the growth during the past two centuries. This rapid movement sciences dur- can best be understood by recalling the development of two centuries. Society and education at the times. Science started to The expan sion of the course of of natural ing the past develop back in the time of Roger Bacon, but even during the Renaissance it was bitterly opposed, because of the tendency to conflict with religious dogma, although this age did not object to the revival of the classics. Accordingly, the latter became strongly intrenched in educational tradition, and became the most obstinate opponent of the sciences. Its numerous representatives struggled hard to keep the sciences out of education. But toward the close of the seventeenth century, with the growth of reason and the removal of the theological ban, the scientific movement, which had been held back so long, began to make a rapid advance. were upset seventeenth century by such investi gators as Co How extensive this development was, can scarcely be appreciated without a brief enumeration of the marvellous discoveries and inventions that have been called into being since the eighteenth century began. For more than a millennium the Greek developments in astronomy had been accepted as final, but in the course of the seven- The Greek developments teenth century these dicta were completely upset by in astronomy the revelations of Copernicus, Tycho Brahé, Kepler, and medicine and Galileo. The work of these investigators paved during the the way for the formulation of universal gravitation and the laws of motion by Isaac Newton, which united the universe into a single comprehensive system and pernicus, completed the foundations for modern mechanics. About Newton, and Harvey, the same time the other great development in science among the Greeks,-anatomy and physiology, was completely revolutionized through Harvey's discovery of the double circulation of the blood and the microscopic demonstration by Malpighi of the existence of capillaries connecting the veins and the arteries. From these days on the desire for scientific investigation steadily and from this grew until, during the nineteenth century, its ideals, has been a methods, and results became patent in every department rapid develof human knowledge. The strongholds of ignorance, lines of superstition, and prejudice were rapidly stormed and science,taken through new discoveries or new marshallings of facts already discovered. But it will be quite impos1 See Graves, History of Education during the Transition, pp. 262f. time on there opment in all astronomy, geology, sible here to do more than mention a few of the more important scientific achievements and outline the broad sweep of progress in the nineteenth century. In astronomy the Newtonian theory was confirmed by the investigations of Lagrange and Laplace (1785) and by the discovery of Neptune through purely mathematical reasoning from the effects of its gravitation (1845). After the middle of the century, when chemistry had been more fully developed, innumerable celestial discoveries were made through the spectroscope and astral photography. Owing to more complicated phenomena and the opposition of theologians to disturbing the Biblical chronology, the progress in geology was slower. Yet during the century were established Hutton's 'Plutonic' theory of the origin of continents and islands, Lyell's 'uniformitarian' doctrine that past changes in the earth were like the present in degree and kind, and Agassiz's hypothesis paleontology, of a universal ice-age. Paleontology also arose during the century, and Cuvier, Lyell, and other prominent investigators proved, by means of the fossils, that the earth had known successive rotations of population and countless æons of time. Despite Lyell's inconsistent advocacy of 'special creation,' these discoveries strengthened the conception of evolution in biology. Early in the century Lamarck formulated his transmutation of species through 'accumulated and inherited use.' But this was displaced by the influential theory of 'natural selection,' made public by Darwin and Wallace half a century later, although the Lamarckian 'inheritance of acquired characteristics,' tacitly held also by Darwin, remained in dispute between the Neolamarckians and the followers of Weissmann. Much was contributed biology, |