there appeared further progress in the social, scientific, and psychological movements of modern education. The significance of the naturalistic movement will be patent when we come to the work of the later reformers, but we must now turn for a time to a different phase of educational development. SUPPLEMENTARY READING I. SOURCES BASEDOW, J. B. Elementarwerk and Methodenbuch. ROUSSEAU, J. J. Confessions, Letters, and Reveries; Discourse on II. AUTHORITIES BARNARD, H. American Journal of Education. Vol. V, pp. 459520; XX, 349-350; and XXVII, 497–508. BARNARD, H. German Teachers and Educators. Pp. 459-520. BROWNING, O. An Introduction to the History of Educational BRUNETIÈRE, F. Manual of the History of French Literature. (Translated by Derechif.) Pp. 333-414. CAIRD, C. Literature and Philosophy. Vol. I, pp. 105–146. COMPAYRÉ, G. History of Pedagogy. (Translated by Payne.) Chap. XIII. COMPAYRÉ, G. Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from Nature. (Translated by Jago.) DAVIDSON, T. Rousseau and Education according to Nature. FRANCKE, K. Social Forces in German Literature. Chaps. VII GARBOVICIANU, P. Die Didaktik Basedows in Vergleiche zur Didaktik des Comenius. GIRALDIN, ST. M. J. J. Rousseau, sa vie et ses ouvrages. GÖRING, H. Ausgewählte Schriften mit Basedows Biographie. GRAVES, F. P. Great Educators of Three Centuries. Chaps. VII and VIII. HUDSON, W. H. Rousseau and Naturalism in Life and Thought. Rousseau and his Emile. Basedow: His Educational Work and Principles. LANG, O. H. Rousseau and the French Revolution (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, X, pp. 54-72). MACDONALD, F. Studies in the France of Voltaire and Rousseau. Chaps. II and VII. MONROE, P. Textbook in the History of Education. Chap. X. MORIN, S. H. Life and Character of Rousseau (Littell's Living Age, XXXVIII, pp. 259-264). MORLEY, J. Rousseau. MUNROE, J. P. The Educational Ideal. Chap. VII. PARKER, S. C. The History of Modern Elementary Education. PAYNE, J. Lectures on the History of Education. Pp. 91–96. QUICK, R. H. Educational Reformers. Chaps. XIV and XV. TEXTE, J. Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Cosmopolitan Spirit in Literature. (Translated by Matthews.) Bk. I. WEIR, S. The Key to Rousseau's Emile (Educational Review, V, pp. 278-290). CHAPTER III PHILANTHROPY IN EDUCATION eenth cen tury there were recon structive as well as de forces in society and education. English Social and Educational Conditions in the In the eightEighteenth Century. The eighteenth century cannot be regarded altogether as a period of revolution and destruction. While such a characterization describes some of the prevailing tendencies, there were also social structive and educational forces that looked to evolution and reform rather than to a complete disintegration of society and a return to animal or to primitive living. There was still some attempt to build upon the past, and, while modifying traditions and conditions, to alleviate and improve, and not entirely ignore or reject society as it existed. Moreover, even in Rousseau, the arch-destroyer of traditions, we found many evidences of a reconstruction along higher lines, and beginnings of the development of social, psychological, and scientific movements in modern education. And such a positive movement was decidedly obvious in Basedow, Salzmann, and other philanthropinists. But reforms were even more apparent in England. In the land of the Briton, progress is proverbially gradual, and sweeping victories and Waterloo defeats in affairs of society and education are alike unwonted. The French tendency to cut short the social and educational process and to substitute revolution for evolution is out of accord with the spirit across the English Channel. Hence in England educa Philanthropy and educa needed, es pecially in England, to relieve the lack of ele mentary schools for the lower classes. tional movements took place in the eighteenth century largely as a continuation of those characterizing the seventeenth, and were the outgrowth of philanthropy on the part of the upper classes rather than the result of a general uprising of the unfortunate masses. And yet conditions could scarcely have been worse tional reform even in France. The terrible poverty of England in were greatly the early part of the eighteenth century can now be imagined with difficulty. The great industrial and mining development had not yet begun. Wages were poverty and low, employment was irregular, and the laboring classes, who numbered fully one-sixth of the total population, were clad in rags, lived in hovels, and often went hungry. The opportunities for elementary education had become greatly reduced. The few elementary schools that remained after the acts of dissolution under Henry VIII and Edward VI had largely lost their endowments through embezzlement or had been perverted into secondary schools, and had suffered through a type of patronage whereby the master secured a vested interest in his emoluments, regardless of his ability or attention to duty. Education was further injured by the political and religious upheaval of the times. During the arbitrary reign of the first two Stuarts, and the civic changes and theological controversies of the Commonwealth and Restoration, schools were alternately abused and neglected. Both sides in turn had the schoolmasters of opposing opinions ejected and forbidden to teach. Hence it gradually came to be almost impossible for the lower classes to educate their children at all, and they generally failed themselves to appreciate the value of an education. schools were even teenth cen the middle of number had bequests or The Foundation of Charity Schools' by Endow- Charity ment and Subscription. However, some people of started wealth must have realized the seriousness of the problem in the sevenand their own responsibility in the premises, and before tury, and by the close of the seventeenth century had put forth the eightvigorous efforts at a solution. During the early part of eenth a large the century there sprang up a succession of 'charity been opened schools,' in which children of the poor were not only through taught, but boarded and sometimes provided with subscriptions. clothes, and the boys were prepared for apprenticeship and the girls for domestic service. The movement for the establishment of these schools for the lower classes by endowment or subscriptions reached its height during the comparative peace and toleration that followed the 'bloodless revolution' of 1688. The first few endowments were even made a generation before this change of government, and for about sixty years they steadily continued. Through such bequests the opportunities for elementary education were much increased, and it was estimated in the middle of the nineteenth century that anywhere from one-third to one-half of all the schools then in existence were the product of endowment in this period. According to an investigation of the Charity Commissioners at that time, some eight or nine hundred elementary schools had come down from these days, and, if the diversion of numerous endowments is taken into account, there must have been at least one thousand schools founded during the period. subscription Of these 'charity schools,' however, a great many were schools not founded through endowment. In fact, the term has lished before always included and has more generally been applied to the institutions established and maintained by private Gouge. Numerous were also estab this in Wales by Thomas |