Since the Germany Europe have maintained training of this sort for at least half a century, and the United States has during the past decade been making rapid strides in the same direction. The especial plans of organization and instruction that have been evolved in each case seem to depend upon the temperament of the people and upon the institutions and industrial conditions of the country or locality concerned. In Germany, where this training has had the longest history and is probably the most effective, the work has been carried on through the Fortbildungsschulen ('continuation schools').1 Institutions of this sort were first established by Würtemberg in the states of 1695, to supplement the meager elementary education, have generally and by the earliest years of the nineteenth century a made attendnumber of other German states had introduced them. ance at the 'continuation The 'industrial law' of the North German Confederation schools' compulsory for in 1869 permitted the localities to make attendance at all appren- the continuation schools compulsory for all apprentices tices until eighteen. up to the age of eighteen, and required employers to allow them to attend. And after the Franco-Prussian war, when a desire to enter into industrial competition with the world arose, most of the other states and localities began to follow the example, and this legislation eventually became the basis for an imperial law (1891, sisted largely 1900). The course in the continuation schools at first consisted largely of review work, but the rapid spread with the in- of elementary schools soon enabled them to devote all the time to technical education. Through the establishment of a large number of schools of various sorts, training is afforded not only for the rank and file of workmen in the different trades, but for the higher grades of At first the of review work, but, crease of ele mentary schools, all the time was devoted to technical education, and 1 See p. 288, footnote. now afforded workers, as workers, such as foremen, superintendents, and technical training is office clerks. Similarly, girls are trained in a wide variety for higher of vocations, and in housekeeping and motherhood. grades of Many of these schools, especially in the South German well as for the states, have added laboratories and workshops, and the rank and file. training has proved so valuable that many of the pupils return voluntarily after the period of compulsory attendance. tends to combine and practical many gen fines its During the last twenty-five years there have also been developed continuation schools for general education, rather than for special industrial training, known as Gewerbeschulen ('trade schools') or Handwerkschulen ('artisan schools'). These institutions furnish theoretical courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, South Gerbook-keeping, drawing, geography, nature study, his- many time tory, and law. In South Germany there is a tendency theoretical to combine theoretical and practical work, and to develop work, and schools adapted to the particular industries of the various North Gerlocalities, but North German States generally confine erally conthe courses to theoretical training, and leave the practical courses to side to the care of the employers or associations. The theoretical system of industrial education in Munich, organized The Munich by Dr. Kerschensteiner, has been especially developed system, or ganized by and has attracted much attention. It includes an extra Kerschensteiner, has an class in the elementary schools with the chief stress upon extra class in manual work, to bridge the gap between school life and the elemenemployment and serve as a preparation for the indus- to serve as a trial classes of the continuation schools. The instruc- preparation tors for the industrial schools of Germany are supplied trial classes of through special training schools, either by giving elementary teachers short industrial courses and making them acquainted with the working of the factory, or by training. tary schools for the indus the continua tion schools. Switzerland and Austria, use apprenticeship, but France has found this feature un and has un dertaken to furnish the entire indus through con schools. taking master workmen from the factory, and giving them short courses in methods of teaching. Industrial Education in France.-In Germany these industrial continuation schools are not intended to be a substitute for apprenticeship, but furnish parallel instruction throughout this period. Switzerland and Auslike Germany, tria also use both these features in industrial training, but the one especially emphasizes the apprenticeship and the other the continuation school. Because of unsatisfactory conditions in apprenticeship, France even goes so far as to satisfactory, attempt to eliminate it altogether. More than any other country in Europe, it has made efforts to furnish the entire industrial training through continuation schools artrial training ticulating with the elementary system. The pupils are tinuation admitted at thirteen, and obtain practice in the school workshops for three years. Iron-work is taught to all the boys, but the other courses vary with local needs. There are also Girls learn to make dresses, corsets, millinery, artificial flowers, and other industrial products. A number of these continuation schools have added normal departments, and there is a normal school for industrial training at Paris. There are also throughout the country a number of national schools of arts and trades that are based upon the same principles as these lower industrial classes under schools, and furnish a training for foremen, superintendents, and managers. There are also many evening classes for industrial training under voluntary auspices, but as a whole continuation education has not been nearly as well developed in France as in Germany. a number of trades, which furnish train ing for man agers and foremen, and evening industrial voluntary auspices. Types of English Industrial Training.-In England, despite the rapid industrial development, little attempt was made before the middle of the nineteenth century to im middle of the several at tempts were made in Eng land to im prove voca tional skill through in dustrial edu prove the vocational skill of workmen. In 1851 grants After the were made to evening industrial schools and classes, and nineteenth two years later a Department of Art and Science 1 was century established, to encourage instruction in drawing and science and administer the grants. Schools of science were organized in 1872, and shared in the departmental grants. These institutions had at first both day and evening sessions, but after a generation became in many cases reg-cum ular secondary day schools. There also arose many private organizations, held mainly in the evenings, to teach "such branches of science and the fine arts as benefit commerce and industries." Among these was the City and Guilds of London Institute,2 which registers, inspects, and examines classes in technology and manual training. At present England has three types of industrial educa- There are at tion, each based upon the work of the elementary schools. types of this These embrace the higher elementary schools, which afford a four-year course in practical and theoretical science arranged according to local needs; the day trade schools, furnishing a substitute for apprenticeship, which is now becoming obsolete; and the evening continuation schools for children who have left the elementary schools at fourteen without completing the higher grades. Thus, while industrial education is still in the experimental stage, England has come to recognize that the country cannot successfully enter into world competition without it. Development of Industrial Education in the United States. The real growth of industrial education did not occur in the United States until late in the nineteenth century. By that time it had become evident that natural ability and adaptability were no longer sufficient, 1 See pp. 343f. and 345 2 See p. 343. present three training, higher elementary schools, day trade schools, and evening schools. continuation cities of the about the middle of the nineteenth century, there arose a num but that real skill and technical knowledge were needed. With the immense body of unskilled foreigners and under international competition, American industrial development could be maintained only in the same way as in Europe by training an adequate supply of expert workers. In the larger At first this type of education was furnished through phiUnited States, lanthropy and private enterprise. Under such auspices there sprang up about the middle of the century a number of evening continuation schools in the larger cities. Among these were the Cooper Union and the Mechanics' ber of volun- Institute in New York, the Franklin Union and the tary evening continuation Spring Garden Institute in Philadelphia, the Ohio Meschools for in- chanics' Institute in Cincinnati, the Virginia Mechanics' ing, but the Institute in Richmond, and the evening classes of the Young Men's Christian Association of various places. slow to estab- Simple as this beginning was, the public schools were slow to follow the example, and it was not until very recently that evening classes in drawing, mathematics, science, and technical subjects were organized by the public school system. dustrial train public schools were very lish this even ing training. Day instruc tion was first New York Trade School, founded in though for twenty years The first vocational institution to be conducted in the offered by the daytime was the New York Trade School, founded in 1881 by Richard T. Auchmuty. He wished to have American mechanics trained for the building trades, and 1881, and, al- believed that apprenticeship could no longer serve the purpose. Because of the economic difficulties in attending, the pupils were at first given a course of only four months. Similar institutions arose slowly. At the end of twenty years there were but two more,-The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near Philadelphia and the Baron de Hirsch Trade School in New York, but since then the development has been more rapid. Since only two similar institutions were started, during the twentieth century a large number have been organ ized through |