missed a large number of (6) things that you desired to particularly (24, 26) see. Suppose, however, you first go through it (34) rapidly, or overlook its contents from high place. One sees (30) where the various exhibits are, how much space they occupy, what are fine, what are common, etc.;¶ and guided by this (34) he (30) easily finds things that are of most interest. So in the world of knowledge: if we have a general conception of the whole field we can steer our way more effectively through the great exhibition it displays around us.

(Continued in next Exercise).

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. It will be observed that there are many references in the above to Rule 34; wherever they occur the question should be asked what is the best and clearest way to represent the antecedent, whether by repetition, or otherwise. a. The definition is not really a plea, but it may embody a plea. Choose the word accordingly. — b. Say "both of these ;" and repeat "both" in the next clause. - c. To say they are "equally necessary "here is to imply that you adopt the definition without question; it is enough here to say "being regarded as necessary." Where do you put "equally" in that case?-d. You are thinking here not of both but of each in turn; what would you say, therefore, instead of “their”? —e. This is so condensed that "just" is ambiguous; better to say "just the good of being," etc. -f. If the previous note is adopted, how would this be expressed?-g. Study where is the best place for this phrase.h. Something more than "this" is needed to make reference clear; think what it is.-i. "It" is a good way from its antecedent; begin the clause with it.j. Put the word "so" earlier; where does it belong? —k. "Its" is vague; you can use "the world's" (possessive) here, as it is thought of almost as a person (compare Rule 15).—1. "The things known is a rather crude expression; better, "what there is to know.”. m. Is this beginning definite enough, or would you say "By knowing," etc.-n. "The word "and" makes the same thing seem both important and unimportant. What word is best to separate the two? Compare below Rule 43.-o. To use like with a finite verb is a provincialism.—p. "Exhibits" (compare Rule 4) is admissible here, though a verb used as a noun; usage has given it currency. q. In an essay like the present abbreviations are inelegant. Query is anything corresponding to this needed here?

:

VI. PRECAUTIONS FOR CLEARNESS.

Many of the procedures hitherto mentioned have had clearness in view as well as correctness; here, however, we need to consider in addition some ways in which, even in the effort to obtain some other desirable quality, clearness may be imperilled.

.

I.

These rules cover

Rules to avoid Loss of Clearness. especially the observance of those minor elements which are too often undervalued; noting what words we should retain when we condense a construction, and what we should repeat with new constructions.

40. Do not leave out any form that is not accurately implied.

The application of this rule is needed. most frequently in the case of auxiliaries, and forms of the verb. They are often left out because supposably supplied in another part of the sentence, whereas if expressed they would be quite different from the one already there.

EXAMPLES.

·Of verb-forms. "Jack is an industrious boy, and

his sisters (do not omit are) amiable girls.”

obviated."

66

Of auxiliary. "This neither has (do not omit been) nor can be 'Just as a man has (do not omit lived) so he will live. It is inelegant also to end a sentence with the preposition to (sign of the infinitive) without supplying the verb with it; as, "I saw that he could be a brilliant conversationalist when he wished to" (do not omit be). More license is allowed in this usage to conversation than to literary English.

41. In condensing a wise clause, be

retain particles

of

a

A subordinate clause may often, and with advantage, be cut down to to participial phrase; but when this is done, some conjunction, as because, though, when, may need to be expressed with it in order

relation.

that the exact relation may be preserved. Not always, indeed, is this necessary; but be wise to note when it is.

66

EXAMPLES. In the sentence, "Walking on a slippery place the other day, I lost my footing," the conjunction to be supplied with "walking" is while; but in this case it is not so necessary to supply it because it is pretty clearly implied. Walking on a slippery place the other day, I managed, with these patent heel-corks, to escape without a mishap; here the conjunction, though, is more necessary to clearness.

42. Repeat whatever is necessary to grammar.

A word that is essential to the construction of different members of the sentence should be repeated with each member whenever its omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity. The following are the principal cases of this kind.

The common subject of several verbs should be repeated when any word comes between that is capable of being a subject.

EXAMPLE. "He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice." Here the which-clause makes the subject of the verb "will not permit " uncertain. The subject that is to be taken should therefore be repeated with the new verb.

Repeat a preposition after an intervening clause that has a word in the objective case.

EXAMPLE. "He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions, and (to) his uncle in particular." The intervention of the verb "helped" and its object "companions" supplies an element capable of governing the words "his uncle; SO the preposition needs to be repeated.

NOTE. Even where the question of clearness is not involved the preposition is omitted too often; there are certain adverbial phrases

in which the habitual omission of the preposition is a common vulgarism. The following are some of the most usual :

and in general treat a verbal noun as a noun by supplying the prepositions of government, not as a verb with an object. — Note that it is proper to omit the preposition in the phrase "I am going home."

Repeat a conjunction with several dependent verbs, especially when they are some distance apart. This is necessary to keep up the sense of the dependent relation of the clauses.

EXAMPLE. "We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; (that) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime but only evidence of the crime."

Repeat verbs or prepositions with than or as.

EXAMPLES. "I think he likes me better than [he likes, or do] Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him than [for, or had] his friend.”1

you."

43. Repeat articles and possessives for each new idea.

One article or possessive standing before several nouns or adjectives serves to bind them into one group; while an

article or possessive for each serves to distribute them and give them separate emphasis.

1 The specifications under Rule 42 are from Abbott's "How to Write Clearly."

EXAMPLES.

“Wanted, a nurse and housemaid,” means that the same person is to be both. "His greatest and most artistic poem " refers to one poem which is both greatest and most artistic.

Note the difference when we say,

"The lunatic, the lover, and the poet,

Are of imagination all compact;"

where three different persons are spoken of, and distributed by the article. So also "The Old and the New Testament," meaning two.

Sometimes, for emphasis, the different terms marked by the article or the possessive may be separate predicates or qualities of the same subject.

EXAMPLES.

66

James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a tyrant, a murderer, and a usurper." "Of these pamphlets, the longest, the bitterest, and the ablest was commonly ascribed to Ferguson." One pamphlet is meant, as in the preceding example one person; but there is no ambiguity, because the article in each case throws the emphasis on the predicate.

44. Repeat a complex subject by a summarizing word.

When a subject consists of several successive members or details, all have to be carried in mind till they are fitted with the same verb; to choose therefore for the last detail some word that shall summarize all the rest is a great help to clearness.

EXAMPLE. -"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports and populous cities, these are not the elements that constitute a great nation." Here the word "these " virtually repeats the subjects in one term, preparatory to the verb.

A series of conditional clauses may in the same way be summarized by having the most comprehensive one as the last.

II.

Exercises in preserving grammatical Clearness. The following exercises, as also the above rules, introduce