ness of conversation do much to destroy the accuracy, as well as the dignity, of one's vocabulary. Thus, when one says, "The lesson is awful," "the beefsteak is elegant," "the weather is beastly," "the necktie is simply immense,” one converts the words into slang,1 and by grossly exaggerating them deprives them of all definite meaning. 2. Of too weak expression. — It would be so understated as to be ludicrous to say a man was a good deal put out by the death of his father; one ought rather to say cast down, or saddened, or shocked.

To say a man is vexed by long continued injustice and abuse is probably saying too little for the gravity of the case; one ought rather to say angry or indignant.- Lord Bacon shows his care to get the degree of meaning just right when he thus defines goodness: “I take goodness in this sense, the affecting (seeking) of the weal of men, which is that the Grecians call 'philanthropia'; and the word 'humanity,' as it is used, is a little too light to express it."

There are certain forms of expression much used for the purpose of getting the exact degree of meaning by putting the assertion in strengthened or softened form. The chief of these are climax, double negative, and euphemism.

ILLUSTRATIONS. Climax, from a Greek word meaning a ladder, is an advance of terms from weaker to stronger; 2 as, "He was, in truth, a rare phenomenon; so perfect, in one point of view, so shallow, so delusive, so impalpable, such an absolute nonentity, in every other." (Hawthorne.)

2. Double negative. - Two negatives, in English, destroy one andther; but a double negative, one of its members expressed by a negative prefix, has the effect of a more exact and guarded affirmative; as, "It is not improbable that the revolutionists will be ready to offer battle by to-morrow," in which assertion the writer's purpose is evidently not to commit himself to so strong a prediction as that it is probable.

3. Euphemism is the name given to the statement of a shocking or disagreeable fact in guardedly milder terms; as in saying, “He

1 For further treatment of slang, see below, Rule 9.

2 Climax is also used in a larger sense; for which see below, Rules 54, 101, 113.

passed away at six o'clock this morning" instead of "he died"; "the gentleman is wholly in error in his statement," instead of "lies." Occasions frequently rise for softening terms in this way; the caution is not to be too elaborate or prolix in doing so.

2. Study exactness in kind of meaning.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

A word that is in any way, even in the least, apart from the meaning intended, is by so much misleading. Indeed, here is a case where a small error may be worse than a great one, because it is less easily detected. So much more care is needed, therefore, to tolerate no error that can possibly be avoided. - In the following sentence, taken from a newspaper, there are three words that are nowadays much misused: "The hills on either side of the river were literally crowded with people who could witness from this high point all that was transpiring on the battlefield and be out of range of the deadly bullets." The word either means one of two; here the writer evidently means both sides of the river. To witness is to bear testimony; here the writer only means that the people could see. The word transpire (trans-spiro, to breathe through) means to escape from secrecy and become publicly known; here the writer does not mean that, but what was occurring or taking place. The accurate use of the word transpire is exemplified in the following sentence from T. B. Aldrich, " What happened never definitely transpired,” that is, never became clearly known. — Another word used correctly above but often misused, as well as over-used, is the word literally; as in the sentence, "The books were literally shovelled into the schools"; whereas if shovelled at all it was only in figure.

A great many words in English that are similar but not identical in meaning - synonyms they are called — make the careful study of fine shades and distinctions in meaning indispensable to every writer.

3. Let your word contain but one meaning.

When a word or turn of expression is capable of being understood in either of two senses it is called ambiguous

(ambi and agere, to drive about); and of course the employment of any such expression subjects the reader to uncertainty, to say nothing of the carelessness it evinces on the part of the writer.

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conversation going on about her," might mean either conversation around her or conversation concerning her. Independently of his earnings he has a certain property," may mean either a sure property or, as was more likely intended, some (indefinite) property.— When a man asked, "Have you seen Brown's last book?" he meant Brown's latest book; but an enemy of Brown, taking advantage of the ambiguity, answered, "I hope so."

Words not otherwise ambiguous may be made so by the careless use of some grammatical combination; especially by not regarding the distinction between what is called the subjective and the objective genitive.1

ILLUSTRATIONS. Thus, the phrase "the Reformation of Luther " may mean either the reformation that Luther instituted or the reformation that Luther underwent. The same ambiguity is seen in the expressions "the vision of Piers Ploughman," "the love of Christ." This latter expression is regarded as wisely left ambiguous, being * equally significant in both meanings.

4. Study correctress in grammatical forms and parts of speech.

It is a vulgarism, indicating lack of education, to use words in wrong forms or wrong offices; and while such errors may not be actually misleading, they are sins against that care for accuracy and purity which should characterize every one's use of language.

The most common vulgarism of this kind, perhaps, is the use of certain frequently occurring verbs in wrong

1 The genitive case, in Latin and Greek, which corresponds to our possessive, is represented in English by the of-construction..

forms of preterite and perfect participle. The verbs lie, lay, sit, set, and seat are the worst offenders; their parts should be carefully studied and mastered. Special care is needed also for the parts of do, go and take, and for such conversational contractions as don't, doesn't, and aren't.

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ILLUSTRATIONS. - The intransitive verb is lie, lay, lain (old Biblical form lien); as, "he lay watched by weeping queens"; "the tree has long lain just as it fell." The transitive verb is lay, laid, laid; as, Lay the coat in the same drawer in which you laid the other things." So also intransitive, sit, sat, sat; transitive, set, set, set; seat, seated. The tendency is to confuse the forms of different verbs with each other.

While the above contractions are admissible in familiar style, it is to be noted that ain't for aren't and hain't for hasn't are pure vulgarisms.

A writer should be too observant of grammar to mix up his parts of speech, letting nouns do the work of verbs and vice versa, or confusing the offices of adjectives and adverbs. In this matter he should beware of being misled by the off-hand style of the newspapers, which too often fall into such vulgarisms.

ILLUSTRATIONS. -I. Verbs and nouns. "The list of invites (for invitations) was long." "The orator gestured (for gesticulated) vigorously." "He was clerking (for acting as clerk, or working) in a country store at a salary of five dollars a week." "Smith refereed the game very ably" (for acted as referee). 2. Adjectives and Adverbs. "You have done your task real good (for very or really well)." "In the then condition of affairs (for condition of affairs at that time) no progress toward reconciliation could be made.". - Note that the form first is the same for both adjective and adverb; we do not say firstly, secondly, but first, secondly, etc. The numerals after first take the adverbial form.

Another vulgarism, closely connected with the above mentioned, is the manufacture of an unauthorized verbal

form from an existing noun or adjective. A number of such forms, which are trying to creep into the language, should put the writer on his guard.

ILLUSTRATIONS. "Mr. Hopkins has lately donated (for given, or made a donation of) one thousand dollars to this worthy society." The word donation is in good use, but not the word donate. "Strange that society should have resurrected (for revived) that old custom." Resurrection is good English, but not resurrect. American people have never enthused (for, been enthusiastic) over cricket "

-"The

II.

Exercises in fitting Words to Ideas. This is what the foregoing rules in their various ways involve; whatever the source of the error, the real question is a question of accuracy, of finding the word that is exactly commensurate with the writer's thought. Let accuracy be the serious and constant aim, and most errors of vulgarism, ambiguity, and conversational exaggeration, which really rise from carelessness, will fall away of themselves.

1. Correct the following sentences, amending not the grammar but merely the choice of words; and be able both to give a reason for each correction and to refer each to the rule or principle involved.1

His whole manner denoted extreme annoyance; he was apparently much aggravated by the injustice that he fancied was done him.

1 It is strongly advisable that the student write out every sentence as amended, in order to clear away the débris of erroneous words and forms and to stamp the proper usage more thoroughly on his mind. All the aia necessary in making the corrections will be found in the Glossary, Appendix III, page 301.