Schoolroom rubbish. chrysalis. If some forms of words, tables, declensions, county towns, and the like can be drummed into children, this is, say educators of the old school, a clear gain. For the rest nothing can be done with them except teaching them to read, write, and say the multiplication table. But since the publication of the Émile, there has been in the world a very different view of education. According to this view, the importance of childhood is not to be measured by the amount of our knowledge, or even the number of our words, we can force it to remember. According to this view, in dealing with children we must not think of our knowledge or of our notions at all. We must think not of our own minds, but of the minds of the little ones. * § 20. The absurd results in which the opposite course has ended, Rousseau exposes with great severity. "All the studies demanded from the poor unfortunates lead to such things as are entirely beyond the range of their ideas, so you may judge what amount of attention they can give to them. Schoolmasters who make a great display of the instruction they give their pupils are paid to differ from me; but we see from what they do that they are entirely of my opinion. For what do they really teach? Words, words, for ever words. Among the various knowledges which they boast of giving, they are careful not to include such as would be of use; because these would involve a knowledge of things, and there they would be sure to fail; but they choose subjects that seem to be known when the terms are known * Rousseau says: "Full of what is going on in your own head, you do not see the effect you produce in their head: Pleins de ce qui se passe dans votre tête vous ne voyez pas l'effet que vous produisez dans la leur." (Em. lib. ij., 83.) Ideas before symbols. such as heraldry, geography, chronology, languages and the like; all of them studies so foreign to a man, and still more to a child, that it is a great chance if anything of the whole lot ever proves useful to him on a single occasion in his whole life."* "Whatever the study may be, without the idea of the things represented the signs representing them go for nothing. And yet the child is always kept to these signs without our being able to make him comprehend any of the things they represent." What does a child understand by "the globe"? An old geography book says candidly, that it is a round thing made of plaster; and this is the only notion children have of it. What a fearful waste, and worse than waste, it is to make them learn the signs without the things, when if they ever learn the things, they must at the same time acquire the signs! (Conf. Ruskin supra p. 159, note.) "No! if Nature gives to the child's * "Or, toutes les études forcées de ces pauvres infortunés tendent à ces objets entièrement étrangers à leurs esprits. Qu'on juge de l'attention qu'ils y peuvent donner. Les pédagogues qui nous étalent en grand appareil les instructions qu'ils donnent à leurs disciples sont payés pour tenir un autre langage: cependant on voit, par leur propre conduite, qu'ils pensent exactement comme moi. Car que leur apprennent-ils enfin ? Des mots, encore des mots, et toujours des mots. Parmi les diverses sciences qu'ils se vantent de leur enseigner, ils se gardent bien de choisir celles qui leur seraient véritablement utiles, parce que ce seraient des sciences de choses, et qu'ils n'y réussiraient pas; mais celles qu'on paraît savoir quand on en sait les termes, le blason, la géographie, la chronologie, les langues, etc.; toutes études si loin de l'homme, et surtout de l'enfant, que c'est une merveille si rien de tout cela lui peut être utile une seule fois en sa vie." Ém. ij., 100. "En quelque étude que ce puisse être, sans l'idée des choses représentées, les signes représentants ne sont rien. On borne pourtant tou jours l'enfant à ces signes, sans jamais pouvoir lui faire comprendre aucune des choses qu'ils représentent." Em. ij., 102. Right ideas for children. brain this pliability which makes it capable of receiving impressions of every kind, this is not that we may engrave on it the names of kings, dates, the technical words of heraldry, of astronomy, of geography, and all those words meaningless at his age and useless at any age, with which we oppress his sad and sterile childhood; but that all the ideas which he can conceive and which are useful to him, all those which relate to his happiness and will one day make his duty plain to him, may trace themselves there in characters never to be effaced, and may assist him in conducting himself through life in a manner appropriate to his nature and his faculties."* * "Non, si la nature donne au cerveau d'un enfant cette souplesse qui le rend propre à recevoir toutes sortes d'impressions, ce n'est pas pour qu'on y grave des noms de rois, des dates, des termes de blason, de sphère, de géographie, et tous ces mots sans aucun sens pour son âge et sans aucune utilité pour quelque âge que ce soit, dont on accable sa triste et stérile enfance; mais c'est pour que toutes les idées qu'il peut concevoir et qui lui sont utiles, toutes celles qui se rapportent à son bonheur et doivent l'éclairer un jour sur ses devoirs, s'y tracent de bonne heure en caractères ineffaçables, et lui servent à se conduire pendant sa vie d'une manière convenable à son être et à ses facultés." Ém. ij., 105; also N. H., P. v., L. 3. Sans étudier dans les livres, l'espèce de mémoire que peut avoir un enfant ne reste pas pour cela oisive; tout ce qu'il voit, tout ce qu'il entend le frappe, et il s'en souvient; il tient registre en lui-même des actions, des discours des hommes; et tout ce qui l'environne est le livre dans lequel, sans y songer, il enrichit continuellement sa mémoire, en attendant que son jugement puisse en profiter. C'est dans le choix de ces objets, c'est dans le soin de lui présenter sans cesse ceux qu'il peut connaître, et de lui cacher ceux qu'il doit ignorer, que consiste le véritable ar, de cultiver en lui cette première faculté; et c'est par là qu'il faut tâcher de lui former un magasin de connaissances qui servent à son éducation durant sa jeunesse, et à sa conduite dans tous les temps. Cette méthode, il est vrai, ne forme point de petits prodiges et ne fait Child-gardening. Child's activity. 21. With Rousseau, as afterwards with Froebel, education was a kind of "child-gardening." "Plants are developed by cultivation," says he, "men by education: On façonne les plantes par la culture, et les hommes par l'éducation" (Ém. j., 6). The governor, who is the childgardener, is to aim at three things: first, he is to shield the child from all corrupting influences; second, he is to devote himself to developing in the child a healthy and strong body in which the senses are to be rendered acute by exercise; third, he is, by practice not precept, to cultivate the child's sense of duty. § 22. In his study of children Rousseau fixed on their never-resting activity. "The failing energy concentrates itself in the heart of the old man; in the heart of the child energy is overflowing and spreads outwards; he feels in him life enough. to animate all his surroundings. Whether he makes or mars it is all one to him: it is enough that he has changed the state of things, and every change is an action. If he seems by preference to destroy, this is not from mischief; but the act of construction is always slow, and the act of destruction being quicker is more suited to his vivacity."* One of the first requisites in the care of the young is pas briller les gouvernantes et les précepteurs; mais elle forme des hommes judicieux, robustes, sains de corps et d'entendment, qui, sans s'être fait admirer étant jeunes, se font honorer étant grands. "L'activité défaillante se concentre dans le cœur du vieillard; dans celui de l'enfant elle est surabondante et s'étend au dehors; il se sent, pour ainsi dire, assez de vie pour animer tout ce qui l'environne. Qu'il fasse ou qu'il défasse, il n'importe; il suffit qu'il change l'état des choses, et tout changement est une action. Que s'il semble avoir plus de penchant à détruire, ce n'est point par méchanceté, c'est que l'action qui forme est toujours lente, et que celle qui détruit, étant plus rapide, con vient mieux à sa vivacité." Em. j., 47. No sitting still or reading. then to provide for the expansion of their activity. All restraints such as swaddling clothes for infants and "school" and "lessons" for children are to be entirely done away with.* Literary instruction must not be thought of. "There must be no other book than the world," says Rousseau, "no other instruction than facts. The child who reads does not think, he does nothing but read, he gets no instruction; he learns words: Point d'autre livre que le monde, point d'autre instruction que les faits. L'enfant qui lit ne pense pas, il ne fait que lire ; il ne s'instruit pas, il apprend les mots." (Em. iij., 181.)† It would be difficult to find a man more English, in a good sense, than the present Lord Derby or, whether we say it in praise or dispraise, a man less like Rousseau. So it is interesting to find him in agreement with Rousseau in condemning the ordinary restraints of the schoolroom. "People are beginning to find out what, if they would use their own observation more, and not follow one another like sheep, they would have found out long ago, that it is doing positive harm to a young child, mental and bodily harm, to keep it learning or pretending to learn, the greater part of the day. Nature says to a child, 'Run about,' the schoolmaster says, 'Sit still;' and as the schoolmaster can punish on the spot, and Nature only long afterwards, he is obeyed, and health and brain suffer."-Speech in 1864. + All this is very crude, and so is the artifice by which Julie in the Nouvelle Héloïse entraps her son into learning to read. No doubt Rousseau is right when he says that where there is a desire to read the power is sure to come. But " reading" is one thing in the lives of the labouring classes to whom it means reading aloud in school, and quite another in families of literary tastes and habits with whom the range of thought is in a great measure dependent on books. In such families the children learn to read as surely as they learn to tak. They mostly have access to books which they read to themselves for pleasure; and of course it is absurdly untrue to say that they learn nothing but words and do not think. In my opinion it may be questioned whether the world of fiction into which their reading gives them |