The usual regular military force, however, consists of fifty-four cavalry regiments, each numbering 1,044 men, making a total of 56,376. The number of Cossacks is computed as follows:

The military organisation of the Cossacks is in eight districts, called Woisskos. Each Woissko furnishes a certain number of regiments, fully armed and equipped, and undergoing constant military exercise, so as to be prepared to enter the field, on being summoned, in the course of ten days. The two larger districts are the Woissko of Kuban, which has the privilege of furnishing a squadron of picked men for an Imperial escort in time of war, and the second the Woissko of Terak, which furnishes a like escort in time of peace.

The Cossacks are a race of free men; neither serfage nor any other dependence upon the land exists among them. The entire territory belongs to the Cossack commune, and every individual has an equal right to the use of the land, together with the pastures, hunting-grounds, and fisheries. The Cossacks pay no taxes to the Government, but in lieu of this they are bound to perform military service. They are divided into three classes: first, the minors or 'Maloletniye,' up to their sixteenth year; secondly, those on actual service, the Sluzhiliye,' for a period of twenty-five years, therefore until their forty-second year; thirdly, those released from service, the Otstavniye,' who remain for five years, or until their fortyseventh year, in the reserve; after that period they are regarded as wholly released from service and invalided. Every Cossack is obliged to equip, clothe, and arm himself at his own expense, and to keep his horse. Whilst on service beyond the frontiers of his own country, he receives rations of food and provender, and a small amount of pay. The artillery and train are at the charge of the Government. Instead of imposing taxes on the Don Cossacks, the Russian Government pays them an annual tribute of 21,310 roubles, besides 20 roubles as a gift to be distributed among the widows and orphans of those who have fallen in battle. Besides the Cossacks of the Don, there are, on the Orenburg and Siberian lines, the Bashkir Cossacks, numbering some 200,000 men.

2. Navy.

The Russian navy consists of two great divisions, the fleet of the Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets is again subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near the Baltic, and two in or near the Black Sea. The divisions, like the English, carry the white, blue, and red flag-an arrangement originating with the Dutch-but without the rank of the admirals being connected with the colour of the flag.

At the end of March 1876, the strength of the various divisions of the Russian navy was returned officially as follows:-1, the Baltic Fleet, consisting of 77 men-of-war, with six Admirals, 911 officers, 110 midshipmen, 1,250 seamen, 400 apprentices, and 107 agents of various kinds; 2, the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of nine men-ofwar, 320 officers, 3,000 seamen; 3, the Caspian Sea Fleet, consisting of five paddlewheel steamers, three despatch-boats, three brigs, some prison hulks, 90 officers, and 1,150 seamen; 4, the Siberian Fleet, consisting of 11 ships, 140 officers, and 1,200 seamen. The total comprises 108 men-of-war, 1,477 officers, and 7,217 seamen, exclusive of the White Sea squadron, composed of three ships, and the Sea of Aral Flotilla, which counts five steamers, one steam sloop, 20 large sloops, a floating dock, and two pontoons, and is manned by 12 officers and 416 men.

The iron-clad fleet of war of Russia comprised, in March 1876, the following vessels:-

The following is a classified list of the twenty-four ironclad vessels of the Russian navy, with specification of thickness of armour, miniuum and maximum; number and weight of guns, indicated horse-power of engines, and tonnage, or displacement in tons. Those ironclads marked by an asterisk before their names were not completed at the end of 1876:

The most powerful vessel of the Russian iron-clad navy is the mastless turret-ship Peter the Great, constructed in the harbour of Kronstadt, and launched in 1874. The Peter the Great resembles in design and construction the three great mastless turret-ships of the British navy, more especially the Dreadnought (see page 234), though of larger size, its length being 321 feet, and its extreme breadth 64 feet. The Peter the Great carries, like the Dreadnought and her sister-ships, the Devastation and the Thunderer, two turrets, with an armament of four 35-ton guns, made of Krupp steel.

Next to the Peter the Great, the largest of the twenty-four ironclads of the Russian navy are the three armoured frigates, the Sevastopol and Kniaz-Pojarski, and the Duke of Edinburgh, the last in course of construction in 1876. The first of these, the oldest ironclad

of the Russian navy, was launched at Cronstadt, August 24, 1864. The Sevastopol nearly equals the British iron-clads Black Prince and Warrior in her dimensions, and exceeds those of the French Gloire and Normandie. At the line of flotation the Sevastopol measures 300 feet in length, and her greatest breadth is 52 feet 3 inches. The ship draws 26 feet at the poop and 24 at the chains. Her plates are 4 inches thick, fastened to a double coating of teak from 6 to 9 inches thick. Her prow has a beak of a formidable kind attached to it. The other ironclad frigate, the Kniaz-Pojarski, was built by English engineers at the naval yard of St. Petersburg, and launched in September 1866. The Kniaz-Pojarski is 280 feet long, 49 feet beam, and about 31 feet deep. The armour-plating is 4 inches thick, and extends the entire length of the vessel from the depth of 5 feet below and 6 feet above the line of flotation: the armour is laid on a backing of East India teak 18 inches thick. The Kniaz-Pojarski's armament is placed in a central battery occupying about 80 feet on the length of gun deck, both sides and ends being completely armour-clad: the armament consists of eight 12-ton steel guns, four on each broadside. The iron hull is of great strength, being constructed on the cellular tubular principle. The entire bottom of the vessel is built with double iron skin for the purpose of giving great additional safety as well as strength. The smaller ironclads of the Russian navy, all of them turret-ships, are only partly covered with armour, not thicker than from 4 to 6 inches, and merely serviceable for coast defence.

The iron-clad navy of Russia is being completed by the construction of several vessels of a new description, called 'circular monitors,' designed by Admiral Popoff, builder of the Peter the Great. The first of these new ships, named the Novgorod, of 2,000 tons burthen, and 480 horse-power, was launched in June 1873, at the docks of Nicholaieff, near Sevastopol; a second, named the Duke of Edinburgh, was launched, in September 1875, from the Imperial dockyards at Cronstadt, at the mouth of the Neva; and a third, named the Admiral Popoff, was launched in October 1875 from the dockyard of Nicholaieff. The Admiral Popoff is reported to embrace all the latest improvements in this class of vessels, being 120 feet in diameter against 100 feet of the Novgorod, and of greater speed, with lesser draught of water, namely, 12 feet. However, as the mean speed of the circular monitors is not calculated to be more than from from eight to nine miles an hour, they must be held to be chiefly fitted for defensive purposes, serving as 'floating fortresses.'

The Imperial navy was commanded, at the end of March 1876, by 19 admirals, 30 vice-admirals, 32 rear admirals,205 first class captains, 97 second class captains, 303 captain lieutenants, 443 lieute

nants, and 125 midshipmen of the special corps attached to the navy. The navigation detachment contained five generals and 508 staff officers, the naval artillery four generals and 197 staff officers, the naval engineers six generals and 139 staff officers, the naval mechanicians two generals and 543 staff officers, the naval architect corps eight generals, and 48 staff officers. The organisation of the navy is after the model of that of France, but so far different that the government of naval affairs is divided between the High Admiral of the Fleet and the minister of the navy, the latter having sole charge of the administrative departments.

The sailors of the Imperial navy are levied, like the army, by recruitment; many of them, however, are enlisted voluntarily, and the crews furnished by Finland are obtained altogether in this manner. The period of service in the navy was formerly twentytwo years, but it was reduced, in 1873, to nine years, seven of which must be spent in active service, and two in the reserve.

Area and Population.

The Russian empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part of the globe, and about one-twenty-sixth part of its entire surface. Owing to the vast extent of the Empire, and its social condition, no surveys that can lay claim to accuracy have yet been made, and the area is obtained in greater part from estimates. There has been likewise no general census of the population, but various enumerations, made by the government during the years 1870 to 1873, mainly undertaken for purposes of finance or war, serve to furnish an approximately correct return of the numbers of the people. According to them, the total area of the Empire embraces 8,444,766 English square miles, while the total population numbers 85,685,945, being, on the average, 10 individuals to the square mile. The density of population of European Russia is considerably greater than that of the Asiatic part of the Empire. Russia in Europe, comprising an area of 2,261,657 English square miles, with 78,281,447 inhabitants, has, on the average, 34 individuals to the square mile, while Asiatic Russia, extending over 6,170,882 English square miles, with 7,229,495 inhabitants, has barely more than a single individual to the square mile.

The following table exhibits the details of these official statements, -referring to the year 1870, as regards the whole of European Russia, and to various dates, mostly later, in respect to the Asiatic portion of the Empire-concerning the area and population of the various political and geographical divisions of the Empire of Russia :