Rousselet (L.), India and its Native Princes. 4. London, 1876. Routledge (James), English Rule and Native Opinion in India. 8. London, 1878.

Sherring (Rev. M. A.), History of Protestant Missions in India. 8. Benares, 1875.

Strachey (Sir John), The Finances and Public Works of India, from 1869 to 1881. 8. London, 1882.

Temple (Sir R.), India in 1880. London, 1881. Men and Events of my Time in India. London, 1882.

Torrens (Wm. T. M'Cullagh), Empire in Asia: How we came by it. 8. London, 1872.

Watson (J. Forbes), and Kaye (Jn. Wm.), The People of India: a Series of Photographic Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols. Imp. 4. London, 1866-70.

Wheeler (J. Talboys), The History of India from the earliest ages. 4 vols. 8. London, 1874-76.

Williams (Dr. Monier), Modern India and the Indians. 8. London, 1879.

JAPAN.

(NIPHON.)

Reigning Sovereign.

THE Japanese claim that their empire was founded by the first Emperor Jimmu 660 B.C., and that the dynasty founded by him still reigns. It was revived in the year 1869, when the now ruling (de jure) sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power of the Tycoon (the de facto sovereign), who had held the ruling power since the twelfth century; and in 1871 the feudal system (Daimio) was entirely suppressed. The sovereign bears the name of Kotei or Emperor; but the appellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado or 'The Honourable Gate.'

Mikado of Japan. Mutsu Hito, born at Kioto, Nov. 3, 1852; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, 1867; married, Dec. 28, 1868, to Princess Haru-ko, born May 28, 1850, daughter of Dadaka Daijin, of the House of Ichijo.

According to the law of succession, as established by custom, the crown usually devolves upon the eldest son on the death of the sovereign. The throne can be, and has frequently been, occupied by a female, who, however, is not allowed to remain single, but must seek a consort within the limits of the Shi Shinnô. When the direct succession fails, the vacancy is filled up from one of the four collateral imperial houses (Shi-Shin-no), who, it is maintained, are not only descended from the same ancestors, but are usually connected with each other by intermarriage. The Emperor has no fixed civil list, but the expenditure of the imperial household is determined annually. The expenditure for the fiscal year ending June 1885 is estimated at 2,221,656 yen, or 444,3317.

Constitution and Government.

The system of government of the Japanese empire is that of an absolute monarchy. The power of the Mikado is absolute and unlimited, in legislative, executive, and judicial matters.

The Great Council (Daijo-Kwan), in which the Emperor himself presides, is the supreme executive as well as the highest legislative body. It is composed of a Prime Minister, two junior or Vice-Prime Ministers, and a number of Privy Councillors, the latter, as a rule, either heads of the several executive departments

or other important bodies. At present there exists no complete severance between the legislative and executive sections of the Government. The most important body in the Government is the Gen-Roin, or Senate, established in 1875. It deliberates on legislative matters, but its decisions are subject to confirmation by the Great, or Cabinet Council, and sanction by the Sovereign. The number of senators is unlimited (37 in 1883); they are chosen from those who have rendered signal service to the State. Another body, the Sanji-in (Council of State), created in 1881, has the function of initiating and framing bills and discussing matters transmitted by the executive departments, subject to deliberations in the Senate; it also hears and decides cases relating to administration.

The executive consists of a ministry of ten departments, viz. :Foreign Affairs, the Interior, Finances, War, Navy, Public Instruction, Agriculture and Commerce, Public Works, Justice, and the Imperial House. A Parliament was formed in 1869, with deputies selected by the provincial Governments, but it was soon dissolved, its deliberations taking no effect. In 1872 the governors of Fu (the cities) and Ken (the prefectures) met at Tokio to discuss chiefly questions relating to the land-tax; since then they have been summoned several times. The Imperial Decree of October 12, 1881, contained the promise that the first national assembly should neet in 1890. In 1879 city and prefectural assemblies were created, based on the principle of election; their power is confined to fixing the estimates of the local rates, subject to the confirmation of the Governors, and finally of the Minister of the Interior. Eligible to the assembly are all male citizens 25 years of age, resident in the district at least three years, and paying land-tax of more than ten yen annually. The franchise is conferred on all male citizens of 20 years, residing in the district, and paying more than five yen landtax. In 1882 the number of such electors was 1,781,424, and of those eligible 878,142. The local administration in the provinces is in the hands of governors, one of them residing in each of the 47 districts (3 fus and 44 kens) into which Japan is divided. Each district is subdivided into cities (ku), and counties (gun), each with its chief magistrate (cho), who manages local affairs. A system of justice based on modern jurisprudence has been established. Above 200 courts of various grades are distributed over the country.

Religion and Education.

The religion of nearly the whole of the lower classes is Buddhism, which had 74,401 priests in 1882; Shintoism had 15,058 priests. Christianity is stated to be spreading among the people. School attendance has been made compulsory. The following are the official educational statistics for 1883 :

Elementary schools. 29,081 81,789 2,976 84,765 2,084,624 919,513 3,004,137

High

Normal

Universities

Of the total universities and schools, 28 are maintained by the central government, 28,821 by the local governments, and 1,818 by private funds.

The school age is from 6 to 14 years. The total number of children of school age in 1883 was 5,750,946, and the average attendance 2,811,529, or 48.88 per cent.

In 1881 there were 2,952 new books published in Japan, and 4,369 in 1882. In 1881, 22,514,955 copies of newspapers published in the country were sold. In 1882 there were 21 public libraries, the number of visitors during the year being 138,572.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The actual revenue (ordinary and extraordinary) in 1880-81 was 14,288,3487., and expenditure 14,269,7987.; estimated revenue for 1882-83, 14,701,6601.; and expenditure, 14,696,1077.; estimated revenue and expenditure for 1883-84, each 16,621,6967.

The following is the budget in yen for the year ending June 30, 1885:

The following table shows the amount of the public debt of Japan in June 1885:

About one-half of the home debt bears interest at 7 per cent., and the remainder from 4 to 10 per cent. More than a half of this public debt was incurred by the former daimios, and was the result of their financial management previous to the change of 14 years ago.

The foreign debt was raised in England. The 9 per cent. loan of 1,000,000l. issued in 1870 has been entirely redeemed, and the 7 per cent. loan of 2,400,000l., contracted at 92 in January 1873, has been reduced to 1,625,2147., constituting the total amount of the foreign debt of Japan in June 1884. Against this debt, moreover, has to be set a reserve fund amounting in June 1885 to 71,099,284 yen (14,219,8561.).