three geographical divisions, were estimated as follows, at the end

More recent enumerations give the population of Roumelia (1880) as 815,513; Bosnia and Herzegovina (1879), 1,158,440 ; Bulgaria (1881), 1,995,701.

Turkey in Europe is divided administratively into four vilayets, or provinces, but which do not include the district of Constantinople, which forms a separate government. The division of Turkey in Asia was into 14 villay ets previous to the war of 1877-78; but two of these had to be ceded to Russia. By Art. 58 of the Treaty of Berlin, it was stipulated that there should be annexed to Russia the formerly Turkish possessions in Asia, comprising 'the territories of Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, with the port of Batoum, as well as all the territories comprised between the former RussoTurkish frontier and a line beginning at the Black Sea, and extending to a point to the north-west of Khorda and to the south of Artvin.' The provinces thus ceded to Russia are estimated to embrace an area of 5,670 Engl. square miles, with a population of 600,644, including 417,602 Mahometans.

By a Treaty, signed June 4, 1878, between the British Government and that of the Ottoman Empire, entitled 'Convention of defensive alliance between Great Britain and Turkey,' it was settled that Asiatic Turkey should be placed under British protection, to be defended, if necessary, by force of arms' against any invader, and that' in return, the Sultan promises to England to introduce necessary reforms, to be agreed upon later between the two Powers, into the government, and for the protection, of the Christian and other subjects of the Porte in these territories; and in order to enable England to make necessary provision for executing her engagement, his Imperial Majesty the Sultan further consents to assign the Island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England.' Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure, namely, 1st, as 'Miri,' or Crown lands; 2nd, as 'Vacouf,' or pious foundations; 3rd, as 'Malikaneh,' or Crown grants; and 4th, as 'Mulkh,' or freehold property. The first description the miri,' or Crown lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner neglects to

The second form of tenure, the 'vacouf,' was instituted originally to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools; but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for several generations, and the 'vacouf' lands have mostly been seized by government officials. The third class of landed property, the 'malikaneh,' was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recompense for the military service required of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form of tenure, the 'mulkh,' or freehold property, does not exist to a great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the neighbourhood of villages is 'mulkh,' which the peasants purchase from time to time from the Government.

All consular and other reports agree in stating that the native population of every part of the Turkish empire is fast declining, in many provinces at such a rate that the formerly cultivated lands are falling into the condition of deserts. Want of security for life and property, an anarchical yet extortionate administration, and a general absence of all moral and material progress, are given as the principal reason for the rapid decrease of the population.

Trade and Commerce.

There are no official returns regarding the foreign commerce of the Turkish Empire. The average annual value of the imports of Turkey in Europe was estimated, previous to the Russian war and the Treaty of Berlin, at 18,500,000l., and of the exports at 10,000,000l. At present, the total value of the foreign commerce is probably reduced by one-third, if not more. The commercial intercourse of the empire is mainly with Great Britain, Italy, Austria, and Greece.

The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish Empire, in Europe and Asia-exclusive of Egypt, for which see page 635-and Great Britain during the ten years from 1871 to 1880 is shown in the following table:

The following table gives the value of the trade between Turkey in Europe and Great Britain in each of the ten years 1871 to 1880:

The staple article of exports of the Turkish Empire to the United Kingdom, in recent years, has been corn. The corn exports of 1880 were of the total value of 171,5221., of which amount 1,8417. was for wheat; 31,6401. for barley; 37,1761. for maize, and 100,7651. for other kinds of corn and grain. The exports of corn and grain of all descriptions from the Turkish Empire to Great Britain amounted to 2,505,2767. in 1871; to 1,445,4767. in 1872; to 2,319,4807. in 1873; to 2,305,3751. in 1874; to 2,909,0147. in, 1875; to 3,775,5287. in 1876, to 2,641,2261 in 1877, and to 1,070,4617. in 1878. Next to corn, in value, stand goat's hair, valonia, opium, and raisins. Of goat's hair, the exports to the United Kingdom, in the year 1880, amounted to 943,251.; of valonia to 471,6371.; of opium to 255,6921.; and of raisins to 233,7531. All these exports showed a gradual falling off from 1874 to 1880.

The most important article of British imports into Turkey is manufactured cotton. The imports of cotton and cotton yarn amounted to 4,452,4337. in 1871; to 5,870,0781. in 1872; to 5,828,8697. in 1873, to 5,229,0387. in 1874; to 4,646,3437. in 1875; to 4,875,008/. in 1876, to 4,605,840l. in 1877, to 6,087,6377. in 1878, to 5,963,9857. in 1879, and to 5,831,8167. in 1880. Besides cotton goods, the only notable articles of British exports were woollens, of the value of 196,9247., and iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 122,4617. in the year 1880.

The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire is comparatively small. At the end of June 1880, its total tonnage was estimated at 181,500 tons, but this included coasting and other vessels. The shipping 'de long cours was reported at the same date to embrace 220 sailing vessels, of a total burthen of 34,500 tons, and 11 steamers, of a burthen of 3,350 tons.

The foundation of a railway system constructed at the cost of the State was laid in 1865, at the end of which year there were 46 English miles of railway open for traffic. At the end of 1869, the number of miles open for traffic was 113, and at the end of June 1878 it had increased to 562. The total length of railways open for traffic on January 1, 1877, was 1,137 miles, of which 965 miles were in Europe, and 172 miles in Asiatic Turkey. Through the cessions of territory ordered by the Treaty of Berlin, the length of the railways in Europe was reduced to 786 English miles, and the total length in the Empire to 958 miles. The following is a list of the various lines in Europe and Asia which were open for traffic at the end of the year 1878:

The line from Smyrna to Aidin, in Asia Minor, known as the Ottoman railway, 145 miles long, was constructed by an English company, under guarantee from Turkey. New lines, of the length of 174 miles were ordered, in 1875 and 1876, to be built at the expense of the Government, but their construction was not proceeded with for want of funds.

The length of telegraph lines in Turkey on the 1st of January 1879, was 17,950 miles, and the length of wires, 31,782 miles. The total number of despatches carried in the year 1878, was 1,344,702, of which 530,019 were official despatches, 523,230 internal, and 291,453 international messages. The number of telegraph offices was 417 on the 1st of January 1879. The receipts from the telegraphs

amounted to 245,3217., and the working expenses to 199,075l. in the year 1878.

An international postal service was established by the Government in September 1876, up to which time the post-office of Turkey was almost entirely managed by foreigners. There are no returns respecting the work of the post-office, though it is known that the number of letters, newspapers, &c., forwarded is very small in comparison with other countries. There were 430 post-offices throughout the whole Empire on the 1st of January 1878. The principal of these offices, at Constantinople, belonged to Austria-Hungary, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, and Russia.

TRIBUTARY STATES.

I. EGYPT.

SEE Part II.—Africa.

II. BULGARIA.

Reigning Prince.

Alexander I., born April 5, 1857, son of Prince Alexander of Hesse, brother of the Empress of Russia (see page 152); entered the German army in 1870, and the army of Russia in 1877. Elected Prince of Bulgaria by unanimous vote of the Constituent Assembly, April 29, 1879; assumed the government, June 28, 1879.

The Prince has the grant of an annual civil list of 6,000,000 lei, or 240,000l., with maintenance of a palace, or 'konak,' at Sofia.

It is enacted by the constitution of 1879 that the Prince must reside permanently in the Principality. In case of absence, he must appoint a Regent, who will have his rights and duties determined by a special law. The Princely title being hereditary falls on the eldest son. In case the Prince succeeds in his minority, a Regency will be appointed until his majority.'

Constitution and Government.

The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878. It was ordered by Art. 1 of the Treaty that Bulgaria should be 'constituted an autonomous and tributary Principality under the suzerainty of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan. It will have a Christian Government and a national militia.' Art. 3 ordered,