PERSIA.

(ARJANA.-ERAN.)

Reigning Shah.

Nassr-ed-Dín, born Sept. 4, 1829, eldest son of Shah Mohammed; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, Sept. 10, 1848. Sons of the Shah.

1. Muzaffer-ed-Din, heir-apparent, born in 1850.

II. Djilal-ed-Dauleh, born in 1853.

The Shah of Persia-by his official title, 'Shah-in-shah,' or king of kings-is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of the lives and goods of all his subjects.

The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private fortune. That of the present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to four millions sterling, one-half represented by diamonds-the largest the Derya-i-Noor, of 178 carats-and other precious stones, forming the crown jewels.

The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty of the Kadjars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war extending over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date of accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty was as follows::

It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to overrule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown, with disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their family.

Government, Religion, and Education.

The form of government of Persia is in its most important features similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on the precepts of the Koran, and though the power of the Shah is absolute, it is only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the Mahometan religion, as laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet, his oral commentaries and sayings, and the interpretation of the same by his successors and the high priesthood. The Shah is regarded as vicegerent of the Prophet, and it is as such that he claims implicit obedience. Under him, the executive government

is carried on by a ministry, formerly consisting of but two high functionaries, the Vizier-i-Azem, or grand vizier, and the Ameen-edDoulah, or lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into seven departments, after the European fashion. However, the grand vizier and the lord treasurer are still the most important members of the executive, the vizier directing the foreign policy of the government, and acting as commander-in-chief of the army.

The country is divided for administrative and other purposes into twenty provinces, each under the rule of a Beglerbeg, or civil and military governor, usually a member of the royal family. The provinces again are subdivided into districts, superintended by a Hakim, or governor-lieutenant, whose chief duty is the collection of the revenue. There is a certain amount of self-government in towns and villages, the citizens of the former electing, at fixed times, a Ketkhodah, or magistrate, and of the latter a Muhuleh, who administer justice.

The vast majority of the inhabitants of Persia are Mahometans, the total number of dissenters not amounting to more than about 74,000. The latter consist of Armenians, Nestorians, Jews, and Guebres, or Parsees. The Armenian population is estimated at 4,660 families, or 26,035 souls; the Nestorians at 4,100 families, or 25,000 souls; the Jews at 16,000 souls; and the Guebres at 7,190 souls.

The Mahometans of Persia are mostly of the sect called Shiites or Sheahs, differing to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical belief, from the inhabitants of the Turkish empire, who are called Sunnites. The Persian priesthood consist of many orders, the chief of them at the present time being that of Mooshtehed, of whom there are but five in number in the whole country. Vacancies in this post are filled nominally by the members of the order, but in reality by the public voice, and the Shah himself is excluded from all power of appointment. Next in rank to the Mooshtehed is the Sheik-ul-Islam, or ruler of the faith, of whom there is one in every large town, nominated by, and receiving his salary from, the government. Under these dignitaries there are three classes of ministers of religion, the Mooturelle, one for each mosque or place of pilgrimage; the Muezzin, or sayer of prayers, and the Mollah, or conductor of rites. The Armenians are under two bishops, one of them Roman Catholic, and both residing at Ispahan. There is wide tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, but the Jews and Guebres suffer under great oppression.

Education is in a comparatively advanced state, at least as far as the upper classes are concerned. There are a great number of colleges, supported by public funds, in which students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabian literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge, while private tutors are very common, being employed by all families who have the means. A larger

portion of the population of Persia are possessed of the rudiments of education than of any other country in Asia, except China.

Revenue and Army.

The revenue and expenditure of the Government are known only from estimates, as no budgets or other official accounts have ever been published. According to the most recent estimates, based on consular reports, the total receipts of the Government amounted, on the average of the years 1872 to 1875, to 1,900,000l. per annum, while the expenditure during the same period was at the rate of 1,756,000l. per annum. The receipts of the year 1875 amounted to 4,361,660 tomans, or 2,026,3541. in money, besides payments in kind, consisting of barley, wheat, rice, and silk, valued at 550,840 tomans, or 255,9117., making the total revenue equal to 4,912,500 tomans, or 2,282,2651. The bulk of the public expenditure is for the maintenance of troops, and salaries, with pensions, to the Persian priesthood, while each annual surplus is paid into the Shah's treasury.

About one-fourth of the receipts are constituted by payments in kind, mostly reserved for the use of the army and the Shah's own household. The whole revenue is raised by assessments upon towns, villages, and districts, each of which has to contribute a fixed sum, the amount of which is changed from time to time by taxassessors appointed by the Government. Almost the entire burthen of taxation lies upon the labouring classes, and, among these, upon the Mahometan subjects of the Shah. The amount of revenue collected from the Christian population, the Jews, and the Guebres, is reported to be very small. The Government has no public debt.

The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of War, numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery, 70,000 the infantry, and 30,500 the cavalry, regular and irregular. Of the total of these troops, however, only one-third are employed on active service, the standing army of Persia consisting, on the peace footing, of:

The remainder of the 105,500 troops enumerated in the Government returns form the reserve. The soldiers composing it are allowed to reside in their own villages and districts, where they may engage in agricultural and other pursuits, subject to no drill or military discipline, the infantry and artillery being usually disarmed when placed on this footing. They, as well as the irregular cavalry,

are liable, however, to be called out at any moment, on the requisition of the Minister for War. By a decree of the Shah, issued in July 1875, it was ordered that the army should for the future be raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies, and that a term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life.

The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts. A province furnishes several regiments; a tribe gives one, and sometimes two, and a district contributes one battalion to the army. The commanding officers are almost invariably selected from the chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised. The Christians, Jews, and Guebres in Persia are exempt from all = military service.

Area, Population, and Trade.

The area and population of Persia are known only by estimates. According to the latest and most trustworthy of these, the country -extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and for 900 miles from east to west-contains an area of 648,000 square miles. A vast portion of this area is, however, an absolute desert, and the population is everywhere so scanty as not to exceed, on the average, seven inhabitants to the square mile. According to a carefullymade estimate, furnished by the British Secretary of Legation, in May 1868, the population of Persia at that period numbered :—

Other estimates raise the population to 8,000,000.

The largest cities of Persia are-Tauris, or Tabreez, with 120,000; Tehran, with 85,000; Meshed, with 70,000; Ispahan, with 60,000; and Yezd, with 40,000 inhabitants. The one million of inhabitants of towns constitute the pure Persian race, and more than half of the remaining population belongs to the Turkish, Lek, Koordish, and Arab tribes, which are spread over the whole of the territory.

The whole external trade of Persia may be roughly valued at 4,000,000l. sterling annually, of which 2,500,000l. may be taken as the value of the imports, and 1,500,000l. as that of the exports.

The greater part of the commerce of Persia centres at Tabreez, which is the chief emporium for the productions of Northern India, Samarcand, Bokhara, Cabul, and Beloochistan. There are no

official returns of the value of the total imports and exports, the former of which are estimated to have averaged 1,000,000l., and the latter 500,000l. per annum in the years 1876 to 1880. The principal article of import into Tabreez during the five years consisted of cotton goods of British manufacture, of the average annual value of 800,0007.; while the chief article of export was silk, shipped for France and Great Britain, of the average annual value of 110,000l. All the European merchandise that reaches Tabreez passes by Constantinople to Trebizonde, whence it is forwarded by caravans.

The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom is very small. In each of the five years 1876 to 1880 the value of the exports of Persia to Great Britain and of the imports of British produce and manufactures into Persia was as follows:

The direct exports from Persia to Great Britain in 1880 consisted mainly of opium, valued at 42,7721. Cotton goods, of the value of 165,4251., were the staple article of British imports in 1879.

Persia has a system of telegraphs, established by Europeans. At the end of 1879 there were 3,367 miles of telegraph lines, and 5,660 miles of telegraph wire in operation. The number of telegraph offices was 71 at the same date. The number of despatches forwarded in the year 1878 was 500,000, the revenue of the year from telegraphs amounting to 15,000l.

The first regular postal service, also established by Europeans, was opened in January 1877. Under it, mails are conveyed from Julfa, on the Russian frontier, to Tabreez and Tehran, and from thence to the port of Resht, on the Caspian Sea.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. OF PERSIA IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Envoy and Minister.-Prince Nazem Malcom Khan, accredited April 1, 1873. Secretaries.-Mirza Mikael Khan; Mirza Mohamed Aly; Mirza Aly.