and issued two commendatory reports, which induced some thirty French pupils to go to Pestalozzi's institute. Chavannes also published a treatise upon the Pestalozzian methods in 1805. Three years later the philosopher, de Biran, founded a Pestalozzian school under the management of a certain Barraud, whom he had sent to study under Pestalozzi. These efforts, however, had little effect upon education, and the Pestalozzian principles did not make much headway in France up to the revolution of 1830. After that time they rapidly became popular, especially through Victor Cousin. This famous professor and minister of public instruction issued in 1835 a Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia, which showed the great merit of Pestalozzianism in the elementary schools of that country. The other great minister, Guizot, had likewise recommended the Prussian schools as the best type for the reform movement, and had shown himself most zealous in training teachers for their vocation after the ideals of Pestalozzi. Spain at first took kindly to the new methods. A Spain, few schools were founded on these principles, and a number of pupils sent to Pestalozzi through the government, but a reaction soon occurred and education was turned over to the ecclesiastical authorities. In Russia the Czar showed himself interested in Pestalozzi's Russia, work, a school similar to the 'institutes' was founded, and a former assistant of Pestalozzi became tutor to the England, and elsewhere. royal princes, but probably nothing permanent was accomplished. Schools were also established before long in Italy, Denmark, and Holland by Pestalozzians, but none of them met with much success, and continental Europe in general eventually adopted the new principles indirectly from Germany. In England there was a tendency to combine Pestalozzianism with the Bell-Lancaster 'monitorial'1 system and to adopt rather its formal methodological aspects than its underlying spirit. However, the Pestalozzian school of Dr. Mayo and his sister near London during the second quarter of the century was famous both for its methods and its teachers. The Mayos, together with a friend and admirer of Pestalozzi, named Greaves, and the reformer's biographer, Biber, did much at this time for the cause of educational reform. Through their efforts, with the coöperation of many other educators, "The Home and Colonial Society' 2 was established in 1836 largely upon Pestalozzian principles, and a number of training schools were founded. The industrial training of Pestalozzi has also found a foothold in England, and in the well-known Red Hill school and farm for young criminals and in other institutions it has produced remarkable results. 1 See pp. 237-243. 2 See footnote on p. 229. Pestalozzianism in the United States In the United States ism was in troduced by William Pestalozzianism began to appear in the United States as early as the first decade of the nineteenth century. It was introduced, not only from the original centers in Switzerland, but indirectly in the form it had assumed McClure in Germany, France, England, and other countries. through Joseph The instances of its appearance were sporadic and seem Neef; to have been but little connected at any time. The earliest presentation was that made from the treatise of Chavannes in 1805 by William McClure. This gentleman was a retired Scotch-American merchant and man of science, who had, upon the invitation of Napoleon, gone to visit the orphanage at Paris directed by Joseph Neef, a former teacher at Burgdorf. Mr. McClure afterward spent much time at the institute in Yverdun, and by his writings, articles, and financial support did much to make the new principles known in the United States. In 1806 he induced Neef to come to America and become his "master's apostle in the new world." Neef maintained an institution at Philadelphia for three years and afterward founded and taught schools in several parts of the country. But his imperfect acquaintance with English and with American character and his frequent migrations prevented his personal influence from being greatly felt, and the two excellent works that he published upon applications M a large number of articles and translations were pub lished on the subject; and applications were made by Colburn, Guyot, and Mason. The most influential movements, however, of the Pestalozzian methods were given scant attention.1 A large variety of literature, describing the new education, and translating the accounts of Chavannes, Jullien, Cousin, and a number of the German educationalists, also appeared in the American educational and other journals during the first half of the century. Returned travelers, like Professor John Griscom, published accounts of their visits and experiences at Yverdun and Hofwyl, and such lecturers as the Rev. Charles Brooks began to suggest the new principles as a remedy for our educational deficiencies. The Pestalozzian methods were applied to arithmetic by Warren Colburn, who spread mental arithmetic' throughout the country, and in his famous First Lessons even printed the 'table of units'; to geography by Arnold Guyot, a pupil of Ritter's; to music by Lowell Mason, who was influenced by the works of Nägeli; and to various other subjects by a number of educators. Bronson Alcott and his brother urged and practiced the principles of Pestalozzi in their schools, and David P. Page, as principal of the New York State Normal School, utilized the spirit and many of the methods of the Swiss reformer. The most influential propaganda of the Pestalozzian doctrines in the United States, however, came through the account of the German school methods in the Seventh 1 For a further account of Neef's work, see Education, Vol. XIV, pp. 449-461. were brought Horace about by Mann's Seventh An Annual Report (1843) of Horace Mann, and through the inauguration of the 'Oswego methods' by Dr. Edward A. Sheldon. Mann spoke most enthusiastically of the success of the Prussian-Pestalozzian system of education nual Report and hinted at the need of a radical reform along the same lines in America. The report caused a great sensation, and was bitterly combated by a group of thirtyone Boston schoolmasters and by conservative sentiment throughout the country. Nevertheless, the suggested reforms were largely effected, and were carried much further by the successors of Mann in the secretaryship of the Massachusetts State Board of Education.1 Dr. Sheldon's 'Oswego methods.' Dr. Sheldon, on the other hand, caught his Pesta- and by lozzian inspiration from Toronto, Canada, where he became acquainted with the Mayo methods through publications of the Home and Colonial Society. He resolved to introduce the principles of Pestalozzi into the Oswego schools, of which he was at that time superintendent, and in 1861 sent to the Society in London for an experienced Pestalozzian to train his teachers in these methods. After a year and a half of the experiment, a committee of distinguished educators, who had been invited to inspect the work, pronounced the Oswego movement an unqualified success. Superintendent Sheldon had from the first admitted a few teachers from outside to learn the new methods, and in 1865 the Oswego training school was made a state institution. 1 See pp. 260 f. |