compulsory by law. He founded the first state normal schools, and insisted that teachers not only should have training and experience, but should constantly strive to raise the tone of the profession by attendance at teachers' institutes and county associations. Through him the idea of public school libraries was started and popularized.

Quite as marked was the improvement effected by Mann in the range and serviceability of the school studies, in textbooks, methods of teaching, and discipline. While not an educational theorist himself, he made practical and brought into use many of the contributions made to educational theory by others, and thereby anticipated many of the features of the so-called 'new' education. Through him was introduced the word method of reading in place of the uneconomical, artificial, and ineffective method of the alphabet. He advocated object methods and oral instruction. By him government and discipline were placed upon a rational basis. The connection between physical and mental health and development was often stressed in his writings.

Effect of His Reforms upon Massachusetts and

Other States

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Thus through Horace Mann the people of Massachu- Through setts renewed their faith in the common schools. While schools of he was assisted by many progressive educators and Massachu

setts have become or

the systems

in other states have

been central

caught his

enthusiasm in all directions.

teachers of the times and a sympathetic Board of Edu

1

ganized; and cation, it was under his immediate leadership that a practically unorganized set of schools, with diverse aims and methods, was welded into a well-ordered system with ized, and have high ideals. The organization of state school administration under the control of a Board and secretary proved to be so efficient that until 1908 it remained in vogue in Massachusetts. Even now the only change is in the way of wider powers and centralization and the recognition of the responsibility and dignity of the executive officer by changing his title to 'state commissioner.' But the influence of Horace Mann's work was not confined to Massachusetts. Through his reports, addresses, journal, and correspondence, the revival of common schools, which was going on in all the neighboring states, was heightened. Following the example of Massachusetts, the rest of New England began to centralize its educational administration, with a state board and secretary, as at first in Connecticut and in Maine, or with a single official known as a 'commissioner,' as in Rhode Island and New Hampshire, or 'superintendent of schools,' as later in Connecticut and in Vermont. This organization and the suggestions of

2

1 In 1908, after the state committee on the investigation of industrial education made its report, it was merged in the State Board, and provision was made for the appointment of a ‘commissioner' with enlarged powers. 2 In this connection we should not forget the marvelous work of Henry Barnard (1811-1900), who had a somewhat similar, though longer,

Mann proved most effective, and resulted in more systematic reports and great improvements in the training of teachers, material equipment, courses, textbooks, methods, and discipline throughout New England. Other states caught the enthusiasm along various lines. New York, which had been training its teachers through facilities in some of the academies, started a regular normal school, greatly improved its supervision, and finally separated the state superintendency of schools from the office of the secretary of state. Farther west, progress was made pari passu with the settlement of the country. Early in the secretaryship of Mann, Ohio established a state superintendency and an advanced set of school laws, and Michigan and other states made ample provision for their systems of common schools. A regular organization of the state schools, with central authority of some sort, rapidly followed every

career as an educator, and greatly supplemented Mann's work. He served as Secretary of the Board of School Commissioners in Connecticut (1838-1842), as School Commissioner of Rhode Island (18431849), and Superintendent of Schools for Connecticut (1850-1854). Later (1867-1870) he became the first United States Commissioner of Education. He expended a fortune in getting out the volumes of his monumental American Journal of Education (1855-1872), which has been the greatest mine of information in existence upon educational history, theory, and practice. Owing to the overshadowing importance attached to the great educational fight made by Mann, whose service for the common schools was, after all, comparatively brief, Henry Barnard has received altogether too little recognition.

where, and has continued as new states have come into existence.

Thus by the force of example the influence of Horace Mann has been felt in all parts of this country. Moreover, the personality of Mann and the improvements resulting from his work were recognized even in several states of Europe. Many articles and books upon this great educational statesman have been published by English, French, and Italian educators. His services have produced an effect both fundamental and widespread. They have proved a stimulus to foreign lands, and upon the United States they have made a lasting impression.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING 1

I. SOURCES

*MANN, H. Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education (1838–1849), Common School Journal, and Lectures on Education.

MANN, MARY. Lectures and Annual Reports on Education of Horace Mann (Vol. II of Atkinson's Life and Works of Horace Mann).

II. AUTHORITIES

ATKINSON, W. P. Life and Works of Horace Mann. Five volumes. BARNARD, H. American Journal of Education. Vol. V, pp. 611– 645.

1 A more complete bibliography by B. Pickman Mann can be found in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1895-1896, Vol. I, pp. 897-927.

BOWEN, F. Mr. Mann and the Teachers of the Boston Schools (North American Review, Vol. LX, pp. 224–246).

COMBE, G. Education in America: State of Massachusetts (Edinburgh Review, Vol. LXXIII, pp. 486-502).

*HARRIS, W. T. Horace Mann (Educational Review, Vol. XII, pp. 105-119).

*HINSDALE, B. A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States.

HUBBELL, G. A. Horace Mann; Educator, Patriot, and Reformer. KASSON, F. H. Horace Mann (Education, Vol. XII, pp. 36-43). LANG, O. H. Horace Mann, his Life and Work.

MARTIN, G. H. Horace Mann and the Revival of Education in Massachusetts (Educational Review, Vol. V, pp. 434-450). MARTIN, G. H. The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. Lect. IV.

*MAYO, A. D. Horace Mann and the Great Revival of the American Common School, 1830-1850 (Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1896-1897, Vol. I, pp. 715-767). *PARKER, F. W. Horace Mann (Educational Review, Vol. XII, pp. 65-74).

*WINSHIP, A. E. Horace Mann the Educator.

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