considerable quantity of printing paper was exported to London; but in the early stages of paper-making in Scotland the business was not very remunerative.

The Messrs. Alexander Cowan & Sons are amongst the oldest paper manufacturers in Scotland. They have three mills at Penicuik, in the county of Edinburgh, which are near each other, and worked as one establishment. The Valleyfield Mill, which is the central and the largest one, was begun, as already observed, by Mr. Anderson in 1709, and in 1779 Mr. Charles Cowan bought this mill. But in the years 1810 to 1814 it was used by the Government as a place of confinement for French prisoners of war. In 1803 this firm purchased a corn mill, which was converted into a paper mill, and it is now known as the Bank Mill; in 1815 they also bought a paper mill belonging to Mr. Nimmo of Edinburgh, in the same neighbourhood, which was called the Low Mill. Before the year 1815, the number of hands employed by the firm was about thirty, who worked by the hand process, and produced from two to three tons of paper a-week. Shortly after the close of the French war, they repurchased the Valleyfield Mill from the Government, fitted it up anew with the most improved appliances, and restarted it in 1821. The operations of the firm have been carried on with marked energy and judgment; and besides their three mills, they have an establishment at Musselburgh, in which the esparto used is reduced to pulp, and another one at Leith, in which the rags are sorted and cut.

The water-wheels and steam-engines employed in these mills are equal to about 200 horse-power. In 1870 they had five machines in operation, and were producing from 2000 to 3000 tons of paper annually, all of which were of the finer kinds of writing and printing papers.

In 1870, about 600 persons were employed in the various departments of the works, and upwards of £1200 a-month was paid in wages, at the following rates:-Mechanics, 25s. a-week; millworkers, men and lads, 18s. to 19s.; women, from 8s. to 10s. The mills were then under the Factory Acts. But in 1841, the following rules were enacted by the heads of the firm :- "1. No child under thirteen years of age shall be employed. 2. No young persons shall be employed before they are able to read, write, and figure, and, in the case of girls, to sew. 3. Wives shall not be employed, as it is considered that they should be keepers at home, for the sake of their husbands and children."

The most extensive manufacturers of writing paper in Scotland, and indeed in the world, are the Messrs. Alexander Pirie & Sons, Aberdeen. This great establishment was begun on a small scale about the middle of the eighteenth century; and the works have been gradually extended, chiefly in the present century. The works at Stoneywood now cover upwards of sixteen acres of ground; and the locality where they stand-the south bank of the river Don-is well adapted for this department of manufacture, as there is a plentiful supply of water, a prime requisite in the process of paper-making. In these works there are in all six paper machines of great width; and these, along with the necessary washing and beating engines, as well as all the machinery required for the finishing processes, are driven by water and steam power combined, about 2000 horse-power being constantly required. Here, and in all the works of the firm, the best machinery, the most efficient appliances, and the most refined chemical processes, are brought into full operation. In many instances the proprietors have been the inventors of the most efficient appliances themselves. In short, this large manufactory has been developed with great judgment, energy, and surpassing skill; hence its success and world-wide reputation.

Some idea may be formed of the rapid development of these works from a comparison of the quantity of raw material used annually at different periods. In 1848, the quantity of rags used was from 600 to 700 tons yearly, but at that date the mills were improved, and the premises extended. So in 1859, the raw material annually used had reached 2500 tons; while in 1879, it had risen to 6000 tons annually. At the present time, upwards of 8000 tons of raw material is used annually; and the quantity of paper produced exceeds 6000 tons, or over 750,000 reams per annum.

Besides the extensive works at Stoneywood, the firm since 1857 have had mills at Woodside, in which the rags are sorted, classified, and then stored, and sent to Stoney wood works when required for the boiling process. Upwards of 200 persons are employed in the establishment at Woodside.

rag

At the Union Works in Aberdeen, which the firm have long devoted to the manufacture of envelopes, there are over 700 hands employed. The rate of production reaches to about 13,000,000 envelopes per week, or over 2,000,000 a-day.

In consequence of the introduction, especially in recent years, of labour-saving machinery, although the output of the works has been

nearly doubled, the amount of hand labour has somewhat decreased. The combined works of the firm still constantly employ upwards of 2500 hands.

The firm produces a great variety of fine writing papers, and also the best classes of printing papers. Besides these leading lines of high-class papers, they make many specialities. Their mills produce the widest range of qualities, from the hardest and best qualities of account book paper to the softest and most absorbent blotting papers. They also make various kinds of card-board, enamelled cards and papers. In a word, the papers of the firm are known and valued throughout the world.

There are other four paper mills in Aberdeenshire. The Muggiemoss Paper Mills, belonging to Messrs. Davidson & Co., which were established in 1796. These works have also been developed from a small beginning; and the firm, aided by its managers, have originated and adopted many improvements in the appliances. At these works various kinds of wrapping papers and paper bags are produced; and they also manufacture a special kind of roofing felt. The firm employs from 500 to 600 hands.

The Culter Paper Works stand on the banks of Culter Burn, in the valley of the Dee. In 1750 Bartholomew Smith erected a mill and commenced the manufacture of paper. He was succeeded by Richard Smith and Lewis Smith. For a long time the works were on a small scale, only six men were employed toward the end of the last century. In 1820 the works were acquired by Alexander Irvine, and carried on under the title of Irvine & Company till 1837, when the mills were purchased by Messrs. Arbuthnot & M'Combie. In 1840, the machinery was driven by two large water wheels; and sixty hands were employed at the works. The papers then produced in the works were browns, cartridges, and all kinds of wrapping papers. In 1856 the Messrs. Pirie of Stoney wood purchased the mills; but, in 1865 they sold them to the Culter Mills Paper Company. The production was then about 15 tons of paper per week. Since then the works have been greatly extended, new machinery and improved appliances requisite for the various processes of the manufactures have been introduced; the weekly produce of paper is now over 60 tons, or 3,220 tons per annum. The motive power for the machinery is mainly supplied by steam engines, but also partly by water, which make a total of over 1000 horse power, There are two papermaking machines, each 72 inches wide, a number of cutting, burnish

ing, super-calendering, and folding machines, etc. The electric light is fitted into the principal rooms. The works are built of granite, and occupy a large space of ground. The railway siding runs into and through the mill, round the building, through the grass sheds and dust house, passing close to the steam boilers, and thus coal can be tipped from the trucks. The manufactures produced in the works consist of various styles of the finest writing papers, excellent printing papers, and a variety of other classes of papers. The products of the company have attained a high reputation in the markets of the world. About four hundred hands are employed in the works.

The Inverurie Paper mills were begun about sixty years ago by Mr. Tait, and are now carried on by his sons. They produce various kinds of printing papers, and a considerable quantity of paperhangings.

Gordon's Mills, Aberdeen, were commenced in 1888, and were recently acquired by the Donside Paper Company. In these works various qualities of printing papers are produced.

In 1870, there were fifty-seven paper mills in Scotland, of which twenty-two were in the county of Edinburgh, nine in Lanarkshire, and the rest distributed over eleven counties. There were then eighty paper-making machines employed in Scotland, and about 10,000 persons directly engaged in the manufacture. In 1888 there were sixty paper mills in Scotland, worked by fifty-six firms; and the number of paper-making machines employed had increased to 101. In 1891 there were 11,879 hands employed in the manufacture; while the number of paper-making machines had also increased.

In the development of paper manufacture, much difficulty has been experienced in finding the requisite raw material in sufficient quantity, and great ingenuity has been exerted in efforts to find suitable materials and substances to meet the requirements of manufacturers. Although many fibres, such as esparto grass, bamboo, jute, wood, sugar-cane, etc., have been successfully treated so as to suit for papers of an inferior description, nothing has as yet been discovered to supersede the use of linen and cotton rags for making the finer qualities of writing paper.

The manufacture of paperhangings only commenced in Scotland at a comparatively recent period, and was conducted on a small scale. In 1870, there were six firms engaged in it, but only one of them had a large business; at that date there were about 500 persons employed in this branch of paper manufacture, but since then it has been further developed.

About 1857, Messrs. Wylie & Lochhead, a firm in Glasgow, began paper-staining on a small scale, and limited themselves to block printing; but after the abolition of the paper duty in 1861, they built a large factory at Whiteinch, and introduced cylinder printing machines. About 300 persons were employed, and 80,000 pieces of paperhangings were produced every week. The more costly papers are produced by the block printing, and the cheaper varieties by the machines.

This firm have devoted special attention to the production of paper-hangings of the highest class, and they have carried the art of making gold, stamped, bronzed, and flocked papers to a high degree of perfection. The designing of paper-hangings affords ample scope for the exercise of artistic skill, and a large staff of designers and engravers are employed by Messrs. Wylie & Lochhead.33

SECTION VIII.

Printing, and Bookbinding.

In the preceding volumes, the introduction and progress of printing in Scotland was noticed; 34 and some notice of its modern development seems requisite. The quantity of printing executed in Scotland prior to the eighteenth century was not large, and consisted for the most part of ballads, poetry, pamphlets, sermons, and a few other works. The first work printed in Glasgow was the protestation of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and of the nobility, burghs, ministers, and commons, "subscribers of the Covenant, lately renewed, made in the High Kirk, and at the Market Cross of Glasgow, the 28th of November, 1638. Printed at Glasgow, by George Anderson, in the year of grace 1638." 35 But Glasgow was among the first places which attained a reputation for printing in Scotland. The two brothers, Robert and Andrew Foulis, were cultured and accomplished men. Both were educated in the University of Glasgow; and in 1742, Robert commenced business as a printer and bookseller in Glasgow. In 1743, he was appointed printer to the University, and was accommodated with premises within the

33 Industries of Scotland, by D. Bremner.

34 Mackintosh's History of Civilisation in Scotland, Vol. II., pp. 299-303; Vol. p. 363.

III.,

35 Macgregor's History of Glasgow, p. 211,