Ο II THE CHILD'S INSTINCTS AND IMPULSES F LATE there has been much controversy as to what constitutes an instinct, indeed as to whether anything properly called instinct even exists. Without entering upon what would probably prove a boring and unprofitable discussion, let us explain that our study is to be of the sorts of spontaneous behavior we may expect from the great majority of children, in contrast to the actions they have been deliberately taught to perform. Certain trends to behavior are found so universally, and are, so many of them, recognizable in the lower animals apart from direct education, that it seems simple to explain them by saying they are due to original nature, however modified they may become by the particular life experiences of any one child. Moreover, many characteristic ways of behaving appear at similar successive periods in the life history of so many children that it is fair to conclude that some inner law of growth determines their development in this customary sequence. For some of these behavior trends we use names such as curiosity, jealousy, suggesting primarily the emotions felt. For others we use abstract terms such as ownership, gregariousness. For the simpler, more definite modes of behavior we describe the act itself, such as crying, sucking, walking. Thorndike would prefer us to give in detail the acts observed and the immediately provoking cause, such as "dodging the head" when "seeing a blow aimed at us," rather than What Is an Perpetuation of Original Tendencies: ог to be led astray in interpretation by any term such as "the instinct of self-preservation." Our chief task in this section of this volume is to consider the commonly observed ways in which children behave, and the likes and dislikes they reveal, so that we may differentiate normal from unusual behavior and thus be guided in our dealings with children. Whether normal or unusual, these tendencies must all be evaluated as desirable or undesirable for the children's best ultimate adjustment to the physical and social world in which they live. If desirable we shall want to perpetuate them; if undesirable we may need to eliminate them but surely to redirect them. We will sketch first these three methods of dealing with tendencies, and then take up four or five of the most fundamental manifestations of original nature. If an instinct or impulse leads to desirable results we wish to strengthen and encourage it. This is effected Satisfaction in one of two ways. First, we may associate some Reward satisfaction in the child's mind from having acted in the desired manner. Since it is a fundamental law of our nature to repeat an action that brings pleasure as a result, this method of reward is an obvious one to utilize in perpetuating an instinct. Thus, we praise a child's efforts at construction in wood or textiles; we show appreciation when he manifests sympathy; we smile at the child who obeys a generous impulse. Many actions bring their own reward without any emphasis by the adult on the pleasant effect. Thus, the desire to make a noise brings joy to the ears of the small drum beater and horn tooter, whatever it does to the ears of those not actively producing the noise themselves. The baby's impulse to grab food finds a reward in the satisfaction of hunger, and the more immediate pleasant taste in the mouth. The second method of encouraging instincts is that to which we resort when a child seems to be slow in responding, or when the environment offers little opportunity for the tendency to find expression. It is called the method of stimulation, or use, and represents some effort on our part to supply the deficiencies of the environment, or to make certain aspects of it more attractive. Thus, the adolescent who is slow in adjusting socially is provided with extra opportunities to meet varied social groups. A sluggish appetite is coaxed by special dainties. The collecting instinct is stimulated by the example of other children. Two warnings are necessary here. One is to see that these methods of reward and stimulation are applied to the truly desirable, not to the undesirable tendencies. Bad training would stimulate the fear instinct by shutting a child up alone in the dark; it would stimulate the fighting response by grasping him and shaking him when he was inattentive. Bad training rewards the disposition to whine, cry, and complain, by favoring the child on the occasion of such behavior and letting him gain what he wants. The other warning is that the reward must be connected in the child's mind with the desirable action, not given vaguely because of good behavior. To this end, the younger the child, the sooner must the pleasant effect come after the act, since the memory for time intervals is poor. Also the pleasantness should preferably be a natural result of the deed, not some artificial pleasure in no way logically linked with the action. If an impulse leads to undesirable results we may wish to get rid of it. This, too, is effected in two ways, each of them the opposite of the two already described. First, we associate dissatisfaction in the child's mind with the wrong response, using the law of human nature Strengthen the Right Impulses Elimination of Original Tendencies: Dissatisfaction Disuse Ways of Redirecting Tendencies: Substitution that a tendency is weakened when the effect is unpleasant. Thus, when a boy is jeered at for cringing and showing fear he is less likely to play the coward in just that way again. A bad tasting substance will check the impulse to cram things undiscriminatingly into the mouth. The second method of elimination is called disuse, meaning simply removing every favorable stimulus to the action so that it will not occur. Thus we take precautions to avoid alarming children. We keep knives, matches, and other harmful things out of the baby's reach. Again some warnings are necessary. First, disuse can be merely a temporary method of treatment, suitable only for the very youngest children, or those below par physically or mentally. Second, as in the case of rewards, the pains and penalties must be associated in the child's mind with the deed, not with the person who administers them. For the smaller children retribution must be swift, if not immediate. In all cases the logical outcome of the action is preferable to an artificial punishment. Herein lies one value of self government in a group, where the penalty imposed represents no one person's temper, no caprice, but the collective judgment of one's mates. A third warning is that neither disuse nor punishment is sufficient to eliminate a very strong tendency; all it does is to check that particular manifestation of it. Either method is but negative, and should be followed up by a positive way of dealing with undesirable instincts. What we need chiefly to consider is how to modify the less desirable behavior, how to find another and a better outlet for the impulse than the one the child happens to be using. Here again we have two ways. The simplest is known as substitution, To take small bites rather than to cram the mouth full, to stroke the cat's head rather than to pull its tail are substitutions for the two-year-old. To wash and dry the hands rather than rub the stickiness off on the clothing, to lead the gang on a nature study treasure hunt instead of on a pilfering expedition, are substitutions for older children. Good form and movement in dancing rather than holds and gestures that are objectionable are substitutions for the adolescent. The other method, known as sublimation, usually Sublimation involves changing the ideas and the emotional attitudes, so that the action is consistently modified, or is forthcoming on a different occasion. Thus, to fight, not just in self-defence, or in personal rivalry, but in defence and rescue of another, or for a cause, is sublimation. So also is giving up desired food in order to feed someone else. Still further, the action may be completely transformed, as when a boy fights, not physically, but through a committee or by writing in the school paper. Other illustrations of all these six methods, reward, stimulation, punishment, disuse, substitution, sublimation, will be given in connection with special tendencies that will now be discussed. John B. Watson, from his intensive work with young infants, tells us there are just three typical modes of behavior indicating instinctive emotions. These we may name rage, love, and fear; and since the distinctive reactions are observable from birth we may well call them fundamental trends. The first, anger, is excited by hampering the baby's movements. Even gentle restraint of the head or limbs with no attendant pain suffices to produce the anger responses. Later, any thwarting of movement, any failure to make physical objects move at wish, any foiling in a purpose, any obstruction in carrying out a plan serves to arouse anger. What wonder then that How |