tion to the poor by labor, as is afforded to the rich by the possession of wealth"; and

Fifth. "That pupils trained in this way are much better fitted for active life, and better qualified to act as useful citizens, than when educated in any other mode-that they are better as regards physical energy, and better intellectually and morally."16

When Illinois College was being established in 1832, the trustees, impelled by public opinion, introduced "a system of manual labor, as conducive to the health and economy of the students." The president of the college attested to this enterprise as follows: "The scheme of manual labor schools was one of the then new-born favorites of the more ardent class of progressives, but had been very generally received by the public and must needs be subjected to the test of experience. This college came into being, just at the unlucky moment when it must needs bear a part in the experiment." "The scheme, however, after considerable pecuniary loss, was abandoned, as fallacious and impracticable."17

In 1834, the Industrial Schools of the American Female Guardian Society were started in New York City and, in 1850, the Five Points House of Industry was organized. Following this date, industrial schools began to increase in number much more rapidly. It is to be noted, however, that these early industrial schools were maintained by voluntary contributions, bequests, and tuitions. More recently some of them have received assistance from the city, state, or national government.

A number of the higher institutions of learning in the United States introduced courses in agriculture and engineering about the middle of the nineteenth century. Other colleges and universities were enabled to add these courses, and the work of the institutions already possessing them was greatly augmented by the act of Congress of July 2, 1862, by which the grant of

16 Mr. Matthias, "Pamphlets on Education" in Report of the Committee on Manual Labor Academies, Feb. 21, 1833, Vol. 2, p. 5.

17 Barnard's American Journal of Education, 1856, Vol. I, p. 228.

land for the endowment of these institutions was made.18 This

act says:

"The leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life."

Massachusetts led the way in endeavoring to incorporate industrial training in the public school system when she passed a statute in 1872, authorizing the establishment and maintenance by any town and city of any sort of an industrial school as a part of its public school system.19

That this law was in advance of public sentiment is clearly shown by the fact that no town or city availed itself of its opportunity until Springfield, in 1898, opened its evening trade school.

Tool-instruction was introduced in Washington University, St. Louis, in 1875, but systematic mechanical work had already been in operation there for a few years. This, then, might be considered as the beginning of the manual training in this country, for it subsequently led up to the establishment of the St. Louis Manual Training School. In 1876, at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Victor Della-Vos had an exhibit of the results of his instruction from his school in Moscow. This display aroused a great interest and caused considerable comment among the educators of this country. Previous to this time, however, President Runkle, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, had become familiar with the system of Della-Vos, and in his report of 1876 gave a clear explanation of the methods pursued. Furthermore, he recommended that instruction shops be introduced in the Institute of Technology.

18 A description of the work done by these institutions can be found in Industrial Education in the United States, a special Report prepared by the United States Bureau of Education in 1883.

19 This statute was approved March 9, 1872, and is given in the Report of the Mass. Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, 1906, p. 12.

His suggestion was agreed to, and, in 1877, the shops were practically completed. President Runkle deserves special mention because of the fact that he pointed out definitely that toolinstruction could be made of great value in any scheme of general education.

Following closely upon the action of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the St. Louis Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879. This school was made possible through the generosity of several gentlemen in St. Louis. Dr. C. M. Woodward, who was Dean of the Polytechnic School of Washington University, was made Director of the Manual Training School. He had been a strong advocate of manual education, and in an address before the St. Louis Social Science Association in 1878 said: "The manual education which begins in the kindergarten should never cease. Just how we shall supply the missing links in the chain which joins the kindergarten with the fully equipped shops of the polytechnic school, we cannot with certainty suggest." To Dr. Woodward, credit is given for coining the name "Manual Training School."

At the St. Louis Manual Training School for the first time in America the age of admission to school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a minimum, and a very general three-years' course of study was organized. The ordinance by which the school was established specified its objects in very general terms:

"Its objects shall be instruction in mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a high-school course, and instruction and practice in the use of tools. The tool-instruction, as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-making, iron chipping and filing, forge-work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character as it may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time."

"The students will divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, equally between mental and manual exercises."

"They shall be admitted, on examination, at not less than fourteen years of age, and the course shall continue three years."'20

20 C. M. Woodward, "The Manual Training School," Heath, 1887, p. 5.

The first manual training school to be established as a part of a city school system was the Baltimore Manual Training School. "On the 24th of April, 1883, in response to a motion, a committee was appointed by the school commissioners to report upon the best means of fitting boys and girls 'as quickly as possible for self-support.' On June 19, 1883, the committee reported that it would be expedient to establish a high school for manual education under the supervision of the board, since 'a knowledge of some form of industrial labor is as necessary as a knowledge of books; and as the state and city acknowledge their obligation to teach children to read and write, they can not deny their obligation to teach them to work, as the latter is as essential for the public welfare as the former. Only a small portion of those who receive their education in the public schools ever enter the professions, but the large number become artisans and adopt mechanical occupations for their future support.' On petition, the city council empowered the school commissioners to establish the school, and legislative action was taken in January, 1884. In March of the same year the school was opened with 60 students." 21

The Chicago Manual Training School, established in 1883 as an incorporated school by the Commercial Club of that city, was opened in January, 1884. In 1885, manual training schools were established in Philadelphia, Boston, and Toledo. Following this date similar schools were organized in various parts of the country, until, in 1890, the United States Commissioner reported 37 public schools offering manual training courses.

"The oldest society for the promotion of Manual Training in this country is the Industrial Education Association of New York, a reorganization of the Kitchen Garden Association of the same city. The new objects of the association since its reorganization in 1884, are: (1) To secure the introduction of manual training as an important factor in general education and to promote the training of both sexes in such industries as shall enable those trained to become self-supporting; (2) to devise methods and systems of industrial training, and to put

21 United States Commissioner's Report, 1886-87, p. 792.

them into operation in schools and institutions of all grades; (3) to provide and train teachers for this work."22 This association was, in the main, responsible for the establishment of an industrial normal school or college for the training of teachers, under the presidency of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler. At present there are several societies which include manual training in their scope of activities, but most of them deal with the larger sphere of industrial or vocational training.

Massachusetts supplemented her act of 1872 by approving an act in 1884 relating to instruction in the elementary use of hand tools in public schools. An act providing for the establishment of schools for industrial education was approved in New Jersey, March twenty-fourth, 1881. This was followed by an act for the promotion of manual training, approved February fifteenth, 1888. In New York an act was passed in 1888 entitled: "An act to authorize the establishment and maintenance of departments for industrial training and for teaching and illustrating the industrial manual arts in the public schools and normal schools of this State." Pennsylvania approved an act June twenty-fifth, 1883, entitled: "An act authorizing central boards of education, in cities of the second class, to establish and maintain schools for instruction in the mechanic arts and kindred subjects."23

Although the terminology in these various acts is different, it would appear as though all of the acts, with the exception! of the New Jersey act of 1881, refer to manual training. Owing to the fact that the acts are not mandatory, very few districts took immediate advantage of the provisions made.

New York City was one of the first cities to give manual training a thorough try-out in the grammar grades. In June, 1887, a special committee of the Board of Education submitted a report to the board containing an outline of a course of instruction in manual training. This report was adopted by unanimous vote of the board. The board then directed that after the course and manual should be prepared, "manual

22 United States Commissioner's Report, 1886-87, p. 790.

23 These acts are given in the Report of the Pennsylvania Commission on Industrial Education, 1887-89, pp. 28-34.