time for a change in the educative process. The too strict adherence to academic subjects gave the general impression that the public school had not kept pace with the changed industrial and economic conditions, hence the demand for the introduction of manual work in the school. Perhaps this demand was not made by the people in so many words, but the lack of attendance and the great numbers of pupils that dropped out have been ample evidence that the school did not properly fill its mission. Educators have realized for a long time that the public school system was in some way inadequate, that it was not holding the children in school. It was felt in a rather indefinite way that the conditions enumerated above had something to do with the difficulty, but it was not until careful and scientific investigations were made that the causes stood out clearly. Professor Thorndike, who made a thorough study of the elimination of pupils from schools, estimates that the general tendency of American cities of 25,000 inhabitants and over is, or was at about 1900, to keep in school out of 100 entering pupils 90 till grade 4, 81 till grade 5, 68 till grade 6, 54 till grade 7, 40 till the last grammar grade (usually the eighth but sometimes the ninth and rarely the seventh), 27 till the first high school grade, 17 till the second, 12 till the third, and 8 till the fourth. It will be remembered that the figures for public schools in the country as a whole are probably much lower that this.35 He goes on to say that "one main cause of elimination is incapacity for, and lack of interest in, the sort of intellectual work demanded by present courses of study."

1736

This condition leads to a consideration of two factors that might be called "preventive causes," i. e., manual training was strongly opposed because of these two elements: 1. The strong belief held by many that the sole aim of the school should be a cultural one. 2. The domination of the college over the high school, which in turn dictates the course in the lower grades.

It is a well known fact that Massachusetts was the fore-runner in education in America. The Pilgrims were a religious people,

35 E. L. Thorndike, "The Elimination of Pupils from School," Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1908, p. II.

36 Ibid, p. 10.

many of whom were highly educated. They had had schools at home, hence it was expedient that they introduce schools in the new country. Furthermore, if their children were to be brought up properly, they must be taught to read, that they might read and interpret the Scriptures for themselves. Consequently, on Nov. 11, 1647, the general court enacted a general school law which ordered "That every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to the number of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read,

-; and "It is further ordered, that where any town shall increase to the number of 100 families or householders, they shall set up a grammar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youth so far as they may be fitted for the University. Provided, that if any town neglect the performance hereof above one year, that every such town shall pay five pounds to the next school until they shall perform this order."'37 Previous to this date, Harvard had been established, so that by this Act provision was made for a continuous course of instruction through the University. "The supreme problems which presented themselves to the leaders in early Massachusetts history were intellectual problems, -problems of church and state. To establish and develop a self-governing community under the new conditions which confronted them demanded intelligence of a high order and widely diffused. These men, themselves educated in the most advanced learning of the time, saw in the study of classic languages and mathematics a means of developing the power of concentrated and sustained thought, of clear and logical reasoning, and of balanced judgment. They believed that the study of the history and literature of the past tended to widen the horizon of thought, to bring to the solution of the problem of today the experiences of yesterday, so that the successes and failures of other peoples in other times might serve as guides and warnings for people here and now. They called this a liberal education—an education that liberated, that freed from the bondage of narrow and

37 Hinsdale, "Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States," p. 4.

local prejudice, and made the vision of life keen and farsighted."38

It is to be observed that, according to the provisions of the act of 1647, all the children who might apply were to be taught reading and writing. To these, arthimetic was added some time afterwards. It was the specific duty of the grammar school to prepare for the university. The task of the university was to prepare its students to take up the problems of Church and State. The curriculum of the college consisted largely of Latin, Greek, History, Literature, a little Mathematics, Logic, and Theology. The whole procedure was distinctly cultural. No provision was made for the manual worker other than reading and writing.

Many of the other New England States followed the laws established by Massachusetts. Connecticut, New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont were all more or less dependencies of Massachusetts and followed her educational institutions to a certain extent. The other states were for many years far behind the New England States in matters pertaining to education. "For this there were many reasons, some external and some internal. Nowhere outside of New England do we find that intense town life which did so much to stimulate men's minds, including schools and learning. And nowhere else save among the Scotch Irish of the frontiers did the prevailing types of religious belief and ecclesiastical organization tend so strongly to diffuse intelligence and promote education. There was a wide interval between the planters of the South, for instance, and the farmers, lawyers, ministers, and tradesmen of the New England States. Learning held no such place in the minds of the one as in the minds of the other. The typical Virginian was a man of vigorous faculties, knowledge of the world, force of character, and book education sufficient for his purposes: but he was no theologian, dialectician, or scholar."39

Writing in 1824-1825, Mr. James G. Carter, to whom Dr. Barnard gives the credit of having first attracted the attention

38 "Report of the Massachusetts Industrial Education Com.,” p. 8.

39 Hinsdale, "Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States," p. 34.

of the leading minds of Massachusetts to the necessity of immediate and thorough improvement in the system of free or public schools, states that the subjects taught in all the schools were reading, spelling, and English grammar; in the better schools, writing, arithmetic, history, and geography were taught in addition.40 Horace Mann was largely responsible for the introduction of hygiene, which practically completed the list of subjects up to the time when manual training was introduced. The scope of the work of the various subjects mentioned was extended and amplified, but mental work only was deemed of importance. This same period also "witnessed the gradual destruction of domestic industry and the development of the factory system. Improvements and inventions in various lines of manufacture and communication followed each other in rapid succession. The Embargo Act, the War of 1812, the shipping regulations of foreign nations, adopted subsequent to the war, and the westward movement tended to rapidly shift capital and enterprise, particularly in New England, from commerce to manufacture. Canal and railroad building followed, immigration. multiplied rapidly, the towns increased in size and importance, manufacture became an important economic interest."41

Notwithstanding these constantly changing conditions, the cultural form of education, which was outlined for the benefit of those who were to have charge of Church and State affairs, was still considered to best fit the needs of everyone. The form had changed very little, but the scope was greatly enlarged. Those who had entered industrial and mechanical pursuits, and the girls who were now permitted to enjoy the privileges of an education, could all be educated to the best advantage by pursuing this same course of study. The theory seems to have been that that which educates for culture educates also for life-work.

In fact, the cultural value of education became so deeply embedded in the minds of educators, that when the demand for manual training was made, it was based mainly on the argument that it possessed elements of culture peculiar to itself.

40 Hinsdale, "Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States," pp. 29 and 56.

41 Carlton, "Educational and Industrial Evolution," p. 29.

Other arguments were presented, of course, but the chief one represented the cultural value of manual training in order to meet the strong opposition of those who feared the introduction of an utilitarian subject.

For a long time it was believed that the training and mental development, obtained by the pursuit of some of the timehonored subjects, as history, geography, mathematics, language, science, etc., was of such a character that it might be applied to other subjects or to vocations with equal force. At the same time culture was being acquired, a general knowledge of many subjects was obtained, which assured the individual of some social standing, perhaps, but did little toward aiding him in practical affairs. In recent years psychology has done much to discredit this view. The psychologists have questioned the belief that the mental characteristics acquired from the study of some one subject can be applied to the study of another subject with the same results. Furthermore, it has been argued that any one who follows a vocational course will necessarily become interested in allied subjects to such an extent that he will obtain whatever culture is necessary. If this be true, those who work in industries could readily make their leisure hours profitable. In any scheme of education it is essential that the work be so balanced that those who take part in it learn to make intelligent use of their leisure time.

In the early history of our country the grammar school and the academy were the closest approach to the high school of the present day. But the grammar school was subservient to the college, and the course of study was shaped according to college dictation. The function of the academy was principally to afford boys and girls who did not wish to go to college an opportunity to obtain a degree of general culture and practical efficiency. It was controlled by a close corporation and was rather expensive. Consequently, the demand arose that there be a school established differing materially from the grammar school and the academy, and that it be maintained at the public expense. Boston was the first city to listen to the demand that such a school be established. In 1821 the "English Classical School" was opened. Its name was changed to the “English High School"