AFGHÁNISTÁN.

AFGHÁNISTÁN is a country of Asia lying between parallels 29° and 38° 20' of north latitude, and 61° and 72° of east longitude, with a long narrow strip extending to 75° east longitude (Wakhan). On the north-east, the boundary follows a line running generally westward from a fixed point near one of the peaks of the Sarikol Range to Lake Victoria, thence along the line of that branch of the Oxus which issues from the lake, and so, following the course of the Oxus, to Khamiab. From Khamiab, the line runs in a south-westerly direction to Zulfikar, on the river Hari-Rúd, and thence south to Koh-i-Malik Siah, a conspicuous peak south-west of the Helmand river. Here the boundary turns round and runs generally eastwardly to the Kwája Amran range. The eastern and southern boundaries of Afghánistán long remained uncertain, but the basis of a delimitation was settled, in 1893, at a conference between the Amír, Abdur Rahmán, and Sir Mortimer Durand, and the boundary agreed upon, with the exception of the Khaibar-Asmar section, has since been demarcated. The Amir agreed that Chitral, Bajaur and Swat should be included within the British sphere of political influence, while he himself was to retain Asmar and the Kunar valley above it, as far as Arnawai, and the tract of Birmal, west of Wazíristán. In the subsequent demarcation, Kafiristán was included within the countries under Afghán control, and has since been partially garrisoned by the Amir's troops. The Amir has withdrawn his pretensions over Wazíristán. The extreme breadth of Afghánistán from north to south is about 500 miles; its length from the Herát frontier to the Kháibar Pass, about 600 miles; the area is about 250,000 square miles. The surrounding countries are, on the north, the Central Asian States, under the influence of Russia; on the west, Persia; on the south, the British Political Agency of Balúchistán; and on the east, the mountain tribes scattered along the north-western frontier of India, and included within the sphere of British influence.

Habibullah Khán, the reigning Amír, son of Abdur Rahmán Khán, grandson of Afzul Khán, and great-grandson of Dost Muhammad Khán, was born in 1872, and succeeded on the death of his father, October 3, 1901. The Amir has six sons, of whom the eldest, Inayatulla, was born in 1888. Brothers of the Amir are: Nasrullah Khán, Ghulum Ali Jan, Mohammed Umar Khán, and Aminulla Khán.

The origin of the Afgháns is involved in obscurity. The Pathán dynasties of Delhi form part of Indian history. The whole of Afghánistán was conquered by Timúr, Kábul remaining in the hands of his descendants, and Kandahár being added to it by Sultán Bábar in 1522. For the next two centuries Kábul was held by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, and Herát by Persia, while Kandahár repeatedly changed hands between the two. Nadír Sháh, the Persian, held the Afghán provinces till his assassination in 1747, after which the different provinces were formed into a single empire under Ahmad Sháh, Duráni, including the Punjab and Kashmir on the east, and extending to the Oxus on the north. The restoration of Sháh Shujá by the British forces under Sir John Keane in 1838 led to continued insurrections against the new ruler, culminating in the terrible revolt of 1841. In 1878 war was declared by England, and her troops eventually captured Kábul. Sher Ali fled and died in Afghán Túrkistán, his son Yakúb Khán being acknowledged as Amir, while a British envoy and

escort was installed in the citadel of Kabul. On September 3, 1879, a serious riot developed into a massacre of the envoy and his followers, and another British expedition was necessary. In July, 1880, Abdur Rahmán

was raised to the throne and the British force withdrew.

The government of Afghánistán is monarchical under one hereditary prince, whose power varies with his own character and fortune. The dominions are politically divided into the four provinces of Kabul, Turkistán. Herát, and Kandahar, Badakhshan being now under Túrklstán. Each province is under a hakim or governor (called Nait), under whom nobles dispense justice after a feudal fashion. Spoliation, exaction, and embezzlement are almost universal.

The Amir's subjects number between four and a half to five millions, the dominant race being the Duránis, and the most numerous the Ghilzáis, who must amount to at least a million; then follow the Tajiks, Hazáras, and Aimáks, and Uzbegs. The Tájiks, who are found scattered all over the country, are undoubtedly the original Persian stock, and though they are found intermingled with Afgháns, they are more settled, and prefer agricultural or industrial occupations. The Ghilzáis occupy the country south-east of Kabul, also between Kabul and Kandahár, while the Duránis inhabit the northern slopes of the Sufed Koh and western Afghánistán generally; the Hazáras occupy highlands between Kandahár and Kabul, and are also found with the Aimáks in the Paropamisus Mountains, north of Herát. They are said to be the descendants of Tartar colonies left by Ghinghis Khán, and have undoubted Tartar lineaments. With the exception of the Kizilbashis and most of the Hazáras, who are mainly Shiás, the inhabitants are Muhammadans of the Suní sect. In 1896, the Amir Abdur Rahmán formally assumed the title of Zia-ul-Milat-iwadín, "Light of Union and Religion.'

Justice in ordinary cases is supposed to be administered by a kázi, or chief magistrate, assisted by muftis, or mutaassibs (the latter a species of detective officers), and regulated by laws which, if rightly acted on, would be tolerably equitable.

The revenue of Afghánistán is subject to considerable fluctuations. One of the late Amir Sher Ali's ministers estimated the average annual revenue of the five years 1872-76 at 712,9687., but subsequent events have made it impossible to estimate the present revenues. The Government share of the produce recoverable is said to vary from one-third to one-tenth, according to the advantages of irrigation. The Amír receives a subsidy from the Indian Government, originally fixed at Rx. 120,000, and in 1893 increased to Rx. 180,000 a year. Including subsidy his total revenue is probably between 12 and 13 million rupees of British currency.

Abdur Rahman re-introduced the regular army, which was originally founded on a European model by Sher Ali on his return from India in 1869. In addition to his regular army the Amir's military forces are largely supplemented by local levies of horse and foot. The mounted levies are simply the retainers of great chiefs, or of the latter's wealthier vassals. The foot levies are now, under Abdur Rahmán, permanently embodied, and as irregulars form a valuable auxiliary to the regular infantry. The mountain batteries are believed to be serviceable. As engineers, the Hazára "sappers," who are regularly enrolled, are excellent workmen. No trust. worthy statistics regarding the strength of the Afghán army are available. It is said to number between 50,000 and 60,000 men, including 9,000 cavalry and 360 guns. Regular troops are now stationed at Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kandahar, Jelalabad, Kábul and Asmar. In 1896, the Amir ordered a conscription of one man in every seven, but the project met with much opposition

and does not seem to have been carried out. Cannon, rifles, and ammunition are manufactured at the Kabul arsenal, under the superintendence of Europeans in the Amir's service. In 1902, with the approval of the Indian Government, the Amir obtained 30 mountain guns and Howitzers from Essen. There are enough breech-loading rifles to equip 50,000 infantry, but it is uncertain how many of these weapons have been issued, or to what extent the troops are trained in their use. Few, if any, of the regimental officers can be considered competent either to instruct or lead the troops.

There are five classes of cultivators-1st, proprietors, who cultivate their own land; 2nd, tenants, who hire it for a rent in money or for a fixed proportion of the produce; 3rd, buzgurs, who are the same as the métayers in France; 4th, hired labourers; and, 5th, villeins, who cultivate their lord's land without wages-i.c. slaves. There are two harvests in the year in most parts of Afghánistán. One of these is sown in the end of autumn and reaped in summer, and consists of wheat, barley, Ervum Lens, and Cicer arietinum, with some peas and beans. The other harvest is sown in the end of spring and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, millet, arzun (Panicum italicum), Indian corn, &c. The castor oil plant, madder, and the assafoetida plant abound. Vast quantities of assafoetida are exported to India. The fruits, viz. the apple, pear, almond, peach, quince, apricot, plum, cherry, pomegranate, grape, fig, mulberry, are produced in profuse abundance, They form the principal food of a large class of the people throughout the year, both in the fresh and preserved state, and in the latter condition are exported in great quantities.

Northern Afghánistán is reputed to be tolerably rich in copper, and lead is found in many parts. Iron of excellent quality comes from Bajaur (outside Afghánistán), and the Farmúli district (or Birmal), and gold in small quantities is brought from Kandahar, the Laghmán Hills, and Kunar. Badakshan was famous for its precious stones, especially lapis lazuli.

The production of silks and the manufacture of felts, postins, carpets, various articles from camels' and goats' hair, and rosaries are some of the principal industries. Silk is largely produced at Kandahár, as well as felts, which are distributed throughout the country, and exported to the Punjab and Persia. The sheepskin postin manufacture is one of the most important industries.

The trade routes of Afghánistán are as follows:-From Persia by Mashad to Herát; from Bokhára by Merv to Herát; from Bokhára by Karchi, Balkh, and Khulm to Kabul; from East Túrkistán by Chitral to Jalálábád, but chiefly over the Khawák; from India by the Khaibar and Abkhana roads to Kabul; from India by the Gumál Pass to Ghazní; from India by the Bolan Pass and Sind-Pishín Railway to Kandahár.

Trade.

No accurate registration of the trade of Afghánistán has yet been obtained. The trans-frontier trade between India and Afghánistán (according to Indian statistics) was as follows in three years ending March 31 :

Of the exports from India to Afghánistán the chief items are cotton goods, indigo and other dyeing materials, sugar, and tea, mostly the China leaf. The imports into India from Afghánistán include horses, fruits and vegetables, grain and pulse, ghi and other provisions, asafoetida and other drugs, spices, wool, silk, cattle, hides, tobacco. The through transit duties levied by the Amir have been greatly reduced in recent years, but the rates on goods taken into Afghánistán for consumptian in that country remain very high. The imports from Bokhára are stated to amount to nearly 4,000,000 roubles, and the exports to Bokhára to as much.

The rupee appears to be the usual currency, though Government demands are often paid in kind.

The Ameer's mint at Kabul is now under the supervision of a European. According to official reports, the smallest silver coin yet struck has been the "kran," of the value of half the "Kabul" rupee, but in future there will be a smaller coin, equivalent to the threepence. In addition to these pieces, there will be a gold piece of the same value as the sovereign, and new silver pieces equal to the crown and half-crown respectively. No gold coin has gone into circulation. Besides the small copper pice" at present coined, of which 72 are reckoned as equal to one "Kabuli" rupee, a large bronze coin will be struck of the size of a crown, and of the nominal value of about 5d.

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The Khaibar and Bolan roads are excellent, and fit for wheeled traffic as far as Kabul and Kandahár respectively. There is, however, no wheeled carriage, except artillery, proper to the country, and merchandise is transported on camel or pony back. There are practically no navigable rivers in Afghánistán, and timber is the only article of commerce conveyed by water, floated down stream in rafts.

Books of Reference.

Accounts relating to the trade by Land of British India with Foreign Countries. Annual. Calcutta.

Bellew, Afghánistán and the Afgháns, London, 1879; and The Races of Afghánistán, 1880. Burnes, Cabool. 1843.

Curzon (Hon. G. N.), Russia in Central Asia. [Contains bibliography]. London, 1889. Forbes (A.), The Afghan Wars, 1839-42 and 1878-80. London, 1892,

Gore (F. St. G.), Lights and Shades of Hill Life in the Afghan and Hindu Highlands of the Punjab. London, 1896.

Gray (T.), At the Court of the Ameer. New ed. London, 1901.

Hanna (Col. H. B.), The Second Afghan War, 1878-80. Vol. I. London, 1899.

Hensman, The Afghán War of 1879-80. London, 1881.

Holdich (Col. Sir T. H.), The Indian Borderland, 1880-1900. London, 1901.

Kaye, History of the War in Afghánistán. 4th edition. 1878.

Mac Fall (C.), With the Zhob Field Force, 1890. London, 1895.

MacMahon (A. H.), The Southern Borderlands of Afghanistan. London, 1897.

Mahomed Khan (Mir Munshi Sultan) (Editor), The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan. 2 vols. London, 1900.-Constitution and Laws of Afghanistan. 1900.

Male (A.), Scenes through the Battle Smoke. London, 1891.
Malleson, History of Afghánistán. 2nd edition. 1879.

London,

Mutchmore (S. A.), Moghul, Mongol, Mikado, and Missionary 2 vols. New York, 1891.
Noyce (F.), England, India, and Afghánistán. London, 1902.
Olafsen (O.), Through the Unknown Pamirs (1898-99). London, 1904.
Oliver (E. E.), Across the Border, or Pathán and Bilúch. London, 1890.
Roberts (Field-Marshal Lord), Forty-nine Years in India. London, 1897.
Robertson (Sir G. S.), The Kafirs of the Hindoo Kush. London, 1896.
Thorburn (S.), Asiatic Neighbours. London, 1895.

Weir (T. S.), From India to the Caspian. Bombay, 1893.
Wheeler (S. E.), The Ameer Abdur Rahman. London, 1895.

Yate (A. C.), Russia and England Face to Face in Asia. London 1887.
Yate (Major C. E.), Northern Afghánistán. London, 1888.
Parliamentary Papers, Afghánistán, 1873-1899.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

(REPÚBLICA ARGENTINA.)

Constitution and Government.

The Constitution of the Argentine Republic, formerly known by the name of 'Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,' bears date May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1862, after Buenos Aires had joined the confederacy. By its provisions, the executive power is left to a President, elected for six years by representatives of the fourteen provinces, equal to double the number of senators and deputies combined; while the legislative authority is vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Deputies, the former numbering 30, two from the capital and from each province, elected by a special body of electors in the capital, and by the legislatures in the provinces; and the latter 120 members elected by the people. By the Constitution there should be one deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants. A deputy must be 25 years of age, and have been a citizen for four years. The deputies are elected for four years, but one-half of the House must retire every two years. Senators must be 30 years of age, have been citizens for six years. One-third of the Senate is renewed every three years. The two chambers meet annually from May 1 to September 30. The members of both the Senate and the House of Deputies are paid for their services, each receiving 12,000 pesos per annum. A Vice-President, elected in the same manner and at the same time as the President, fills the office of Chairman of the Senate, but has otherwise no political power. The President is commanderin-chief of the troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices, and has the right of presentation to bishoprics; he is responsible with the Ministry for the acts of the executive; both President and Vice-President must be Roman Catholics, Argentine by birth, and cannot be re-elected.

President of the Republic.-Dr. Manuel Quintana; assumed office October 12, 1904. Vice-President.-Dr. Jose Figueroa Alcorta.

The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the President, consists of eight Secretaries of State-namely, of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, Justice, Agriculture, Marine, and Public Works.

The President has a salary of 72,000 dollars, the Vice-President of 36,000 dollars, and each of the five ministers of 16,800 dollars per annum.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

The Constitution, with certain small exceptions, is identical with that of the United States. Such matters as affect the Republic as a whole are under the superintendence of the Central Government. The governors of the