Chinese Dependencies.

Manchuria, lying between the province of Chihli and the Amur river, and extending from the Kinghan mountains eastwards to Korea and the Ussuri river, has an area of about 364,000 square miles and a population probably of about 13,000,000, but variously estimated at from 5,750,000 to 22,000,000. It consists of 3 provinces, Shen-King (area, 56,000 sq. miles ; pop. 5,500,000), Kirin (105,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000), and Helungkiang (203,000 sq. miles: pop. 1,500,000). The chief towns are Mukden, the capital, with about 150,000 inhabitants; Niuchuang (50,000) standing about 30 miles up the Liao river, at the mouth of which is the port of Ying-tse (60,000) often called Niuchuang, In Kirin province are the towns of Kirin and Chang-chun, the latter with 80,000 inhabitants. The chief town in the He-lung province is Zitzikar (30,000) near the railway, about 180 miles northeast from the railway junction at Kharbin. In Manchuria, however, there are many other populous towns situated on the old trade routes.

The Manchu population, especially in the south, has been largely absorbed by Chinese immigrants, so that the southern province, being now connected with China by railway as well as by maritime trade, has become closely identified with distinctively Chinese interests. The possession of the southern extremity of the Liao-tung peninsula, containing Port Arthur, Talien-wan and other ports with the adjacent waters and islands, leased to Russia in 1898, is now being contested by the Japanese, while Japanese armies are engaged in repelling the Russian forces which entered on the occupation of a large part of Manchuria in 1900.

The Manchurian railways extend from Shan-hai-kwan on the frontier of Chihli northwards to Sin-min-tun, about 10 miles from Mukden, and round the Liao-tung gulf to Port Arthur which is directly connected with Mukden by the Russian line running northwards to Kharbin, 615 miles from Port Arthur. There is a branch line of 70 miles from Chang-chun to Kirin. At Kharbin the railway joins the line which runs for a length of 960 miles over Manchurian soil and connects the Siberian frontier with Vladivostock. Kharbin, on the Sungari river, is a new town which, under Russian influence and owing to its position on the railway system, is rapidly extending.

Tibet, extending from the Pamir region eastwards between the Himalayan and Kwen-lun mountains to the frontiers of China has (including the Ku-kuNor) an area of 700,000 square miles with a population variously estimated at from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000. Lhasa, the capital, has from 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. The country being bleak and mountainous and strangers having been jealously excluded, wide regions are still unexplored.

Chinese authority is represented by two Ambans who have charge, respectively, of foreign and military affairs. There are three Chinese commandants of troops at Lhasa, Shigatse, and Dingri where the permanent military force of about 4,600, provided by China, are mostly quartered. There are a few other Chinese officials, but the civil and religious administration of the country is almost entirely left to Tibetans. The head of the government is the Dalai Lama who resides at the Po-ta-la (or palace) near Lhasa. He acts through a minister or regent (nomo-khan), appointed for life by the Chinese Government from among the chief Tibetan Lamas, and he is assisted by five ministers. The Government revenues, often paid in kind, are from taxes, fines, and other sources, and they are mostly expended on the lamas in and about Lhasa. The prevailing religion is Lamaism, a corrupt form of Buddhism, but along with it there exists the Bon, or Shamanistic, faith. The Buddhist lamas have superbly decorated temples and

their monastries, containing thousands of lamas, are like populous villages or towns. Among the people polyandry is common. There are courts of justice, but doubtful cases are often decided by lot or by ordeal, and in criminal cases evidence is extracted by torture. The occupations of the people are necessarily determined by local conditions. In some places agriculture is carried on, barley and other cereals as well as pulse and vegetables being grown. In some favoured regions fruits, including peaches and even grapes, are produced. In other places the pursuits are pastoral, the domestic animals being sheep and yak (often crossed with Indian cattle), while in some regions there are buffaloes, pigs, and camels. Wool-spinning, weaving, and knitting are common, and there are many hands skilful in making images and other decorations for religious edifices. The chief minerals worked are gold, borax, and salt. There is a large trade with China and considerable traffic across the Indian frontier.

For the removal of hindrances to the Indian trade a treaty was made with China (as suzerain of Tibet) in 1890, supplemented by a second treaty in 1893, but the hindrances still remained. Consequently, in 1904, the Indian Government sent a mission with an escort to arrange matters directly with the Tibetan Government. The mission met with a good deal of armed opposition, but at length, on September 7, a convention, the terms of which appear not to have been finally settled, was executed at Lhasa. The Dalai Lama had fled northwards, but his seal was affixed by the regent, and the other Tibetan formalities were duly observed, though the convention still awaits the sanction of the Chinese Government.

The draft of the convention provides for the re-erection of boundary stones (alluding to former pastoral disputes) on the Sikkim frontier; for marts at Yatung, Gyangtze, and Gartok for Tibetan and British merchants; for the demolition of forts on the trade routes; for a Tibetan commissioner to confer with British officials for the alteration of the objectionable features of the treaty of 1893; for the settlement of an equitable customs tariff; for the repair of the passes and the appointment of Tibetan and British officials at the trade marts. The Tibetans had, moreover, to agree to the payment of an indemnity of 7,500,000 rupees (500,000l.) in 75 instalments, the first on January 1, 1906; and to the occupation of the Chumbi valley by the British till the treaty obligations are complied with. Further, no Tibetan territory may be sold, leased or mortgaged to any foreign Power, nor may Tibetan affairs, or Tibetan public works, be subject to foreign management or interference without the consent of the British. With respect to the ratification of the convention by China, it is understood that a Chinese commissioner has been appointed to negotiate in Tibet.

The province of Sin-Kiang, consisting of Chinese Turkestan, Kulja, Zungaria, and outer Kan-su, comprehends all the Chinese dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south. Its area is estimated

at about 580,000 square miles and population at about 2,000,000. The inhabitants are of various races, mostly mixed Kirghiz, Persian, Kalmuck and Chinese. The chief towns are Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Kiriya and (towards the north) Aksu. The country is administered under Chinese officials, the subordinates being usually natives of the country. In some regions about the Kashgar and Yarkand rivers the soil is fertile, irrigation is practised, and cereals, fruits and vegetables are grown. Other productions of the country are wool, cotton, and silk. Jade is worked, and in some districts gold is found.

The vast and indefinite tract of country called Mongolia, stretches from the Kinghan mountains on the east to the Tarbagatai mountains on

the west, being intersected towards its western end by the Altai mountains and the Irtish river. On the north it is bounded by Siberia and on the south by the outer Kan-su and other regions which are united into Sin-Kiang. The area of Mongolia is about 1,200,000 square miles, and its population about 2,000,000. A wide tract in the heart of this region is occupied by the Desert of Gobi which extends south-westwards into Chinese Turkestan. The inhabitants are nomadic Mongols and Kalmucks who range the desert with camels, horses, and sheep. Even in fertile districts they are little given to agriculture. The chief town or centre of population is Urga, about 170 miles due south of Maimachin, which is a frontier emporium for the brisk caravan trade carried on with China across the Gobi Desert, goods being easily transported to the Siberian frontier town of Kiakhta which stands about 100 miles from the south end of Lake Baikal. In 1902 the exports through Kiakhta from Russia to China amounted to 1,015,000 roubles, in 1903 to 973,000; in 1902 the imports into Russian territory through Kiakhta amounted to 8,428,000 roubles, in 1903 to 3,691,000 (chiefly tea).

Buddhist Lamaism is the prevalent form of religion, the Lamas having their residence at Urga and other centres.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chinese

Empire.

1. China.

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Correspondence respecting the affairs of China (1 and 2, 1899, and 1, 1900).--Correspondence respecting the Disturbances in China (3, 1900, and 1, 1901). London, 1899-1901.Correspondence respecting China, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, 1902. London.

Customs Gazette, Shanghai; published quarterly. Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China. Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs Revenue Statistics. Part II. Statistics of each Port. Shanghai, published yearly. Imperial Maritime Customs Publications :— I. Statistical Series, Customs Gazette (quarterly), Returns of Trade Part I. Abstracts; Part II. Statistics of each Port; II. Special Series, Medical, &c.; III. Miscellaneous Series, Lighthouses. Shanghai.

Decennial Reports, 1892 to 1901. Shanghai, 1903.

Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States for March, 1899. [Contains a paper on Commercial China.] Washington.

Foreign Office Reports. Annual and Miscellaneous Series. London. [For Chinese Imperial Finance see Consul Jamieson's Report, Miscellaneous Series, No. 415. London, 1897.]

Treaties between Great Britain and China, by Sir E. Hertslet. 2 vols. London. 1896. -Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers, with Regulations for Trade, &c. Shanghai, 1902.

Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.

NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Ball (J. D.), Things Chinese. 4th edit. London, 1904.

Bard (M. E.), Les Chinois chez eux. Paris, 1899.

Bastian (Dr. A.), Die Völker des östlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.

Beaulieu (P. Leroy), La Renovation de l'Asie (Sibérie, Chine, Japon). Paris, 1900.The Awakening of the East (Eng. Trans.). London, 1900.

Bigham (C.), A Year in China, 1899-1900. London, 1901.
Birch (J. G.), Travels in North and Central China.

London, 1902.

Bishop (Mrs. Isabella), The Yangtze Valley and Beyond. London, 1899.--Pictures from China. London, 1900.

Boulger (D. C.), History of China. 2nd edit. 2 vols. London, 1898. -A Short History of China. New ed. London, 1900.

Brandt (M. von), Aus dem Lande des Zopfes. Leipzic, 1894. Ostasiatische Fragen Leipzic, 1897.-Dreiunddreissig Jahre in Ost. Asien. Leipzig, 1901.

Brown (A. J.), New Forces in Old China. New York, 1904.

Carli (Mario), Il Ce-Kiang, Studio geographico-economico. Roma, 1899.

China Review. Hong Kong. China Recorder. Shanghai.

Ching (Wen), The Chinese Crisis from Within. London, 1901.

Colquhoun (A. R.), Across Chryse: from Canton to Mandalay. 2 vols. London, 1883.China in Transformation. London, 1898.-The Overland' to China. London, 1900.The Problem in China and British Policy. London, 1900.

Cordier (H.), Les Origines des deux établissements français, Changhaï et Ningpo. Paris, 1896.-Histoire des Relations de la Chine avec les Puissances Occidentales (1860-1900). 2 vols. Paris, 1901-02.

Cornaby, China under Searchlight. London, 1901.

Curzon (G. N.), Problems of the Far East. New. ed. 8. London, 1896.

David (Abbé A.), Journal de mon troisième voyage d'exploration dans l'empire chinois. 2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.

Douglas (R. K.), Confucianism and Taouism. London, 1893.-Society in China. 8. London, 1894.-Li Hung Chang. London, 1895.-China. In 'Story of the Nations' Series. 2nd ed. London, 1900.-Europe and the Far East. Cambridge, 1904.

Drake (S. B.), Among the Dark-haired Race in the Flowery Land. London, 1897.
Dubois (M.) et Guy (C.), Album Géographique. Tome II. Paris, 1897.
Edkins (J.), Religion in China. 3rd edit. 8. London, 1880.

Edwards (N. P.), The Story of China. London, 1900.

Ehlers (. E.), Im Osten Asiens. 3rd edit. Berlin, 1896.
European Settlements in the Far East. London, 1900.

Favier (Alph.), Péking, Histoire et Description. Peking, 1897.

Gill (Captain), The River of Golden Sand. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Gordon (General), Events in the Taeping Rebellion.

Gorst (H. E.), China. London, 1899.

London, 1884.

Grant (Sir J. Hope), Life of. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1894.

Gray (Ven. John Henry), China: a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.

Gundry (R. S.), China and her Neighbours. 8. London, 1895. China Past and Present. London, 1895.

Hake (A. G.), The Story of Chinese Gordon. Soudan. London, 1896.

Hart (Sir R.), These from the Land of Sinim.

London, 1884. Gordon in China and the

London, 1901.

Holcombe (C.), The Chinese Problem. New York, 1900.

Hosie (A.), Three Years in Western China. New ed. London, 1897.

Huc (L'Abbé E. R.), L'empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.

Ireland (A.), China and the Powers. Boston, Mass., 1900.

Jack (R. L.), The Back Blocks of China. London, 1904.

Johnston (J.), China and its Future. London, 1899.

Keane (Prof. A. H.), Asia. Vol. I. New ed. London, 1896.

Krause (A.), China in Decay. 3rd ed. London, 1900.-The Story of the Chinese Crisis. London, 1900.-The Far East: Its History and its Question. London, 1901.

Lane-Poole (S.), Life of Sir Harry Parkes, K.C.B. 2 vols. 8. London, 1894.

Lavollée (C.), France et Chine. Paris, 1900.

Legge (J.), Chinese Classics, with Translations, Prolegomena, &c. New ed. 7 vols. Oxford, 1893.

Leroy (H.), En Chine, Sehely. Paris, 1900.

Little (A.), Through the Yangtse Gorges, or Trade and Travel in Western China. 3rd ed. London, 1898.-Mount Omi and Beyond. London, 1901.

Little (Mrs. A.). Intimate China. London, 1899.-The Land of the Blue Gown. 2nd ed. London, 1902.-Out in China. London, 1902.

Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 3rd ed. London, 1900.

MacGowan (J.), Pictures of Southern China. London, 1897. History of China. London, 1897. MacMahon (A. R.), Far Cathay and Farther India. 8. London, 1893.

Madrolle (C.), Les Peuples et les Langues de la Chine Meridionale. Paris, 1898.Hainan. Paris, 1900.-Chine du Nord et de l'Ouest, Corée, le Trans-sibérien. Chine du

Sud et de l'Est Ports du Japon (Guide Books). Paris, 1904.
Mahan (A. T.), The Problem of Asia. London, 1900.
Martin (W. A. P.), A Cycle of Cathay. Edinburgh,

Edinburgh, 1900.-The Lore of Cathay. Edinburgh, 1901.

1896.-The Siege in Pekin

Matignon (J. J.), Superstition, Crime, Misère en Chine. Paris, 1900.

Mayers (W. F.), The Chinese Government. London: Kegan Paul, Trübner and Co.
Mesny (W.), Chinese Miscellany. 2 vols. Shanghai, 1896-97.

Michie (A.), The Englishman in China (Sir R. Alcock). 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1900.
Mission Lyonnaise d'Exploration en Chine, 1895-97. Lyon, 1898.

Moule (A. E.), New China and Old. London, 1902.

Mounier (M.). Le Drame Chinois. Paris, 1900.

Navarra (B.), China und die Chinesen. 2 vols. Bremen, 1901.

Nichols (F. H.), Through Hidden Shensi. London, 1902.

Norman (H.), Peoples and Politics of the Far East. London, 1895. Obrutschew (V. A.), Aus China: Reiserleebnisse. 2 vols. 8. 1896. The New Capital (Singan-fu) of China and the Routes to it from the Yellow Sea (in Russian) St. Petersburg, 1901.

Oliphant (L.), Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, 1856-59. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860. Oxenham (E. L.), Historical Atlas of the Chinese Empire. 2nd ed. London, 1898. Parker (E. H.), China, her History, Diplomacy, and Commerce. London, 1901.-John China man and a few Others. London, 1901.-China Past and Present. London, 1903. Parsons (B.), An American Engineer in China. New York, 1901.

Pinon (R. J. de M.), La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris, 1900.

Planchut (E.), China and the Chinese. [Eng. Translation.] London, 1899.

Playfair (G. M. H.), Cities and Towns of China. Hong Kong, 1879.

Ready (O. G.), Life and Sport in China. London, 1903.

Rectus (Elisée), Nouvelle geographie universelle. Tome VII. Paris, 1882.-L'Empire du Milieu. Paris, 1901.

Richthofen (Ferd. von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegründeter Studien. Vols. I., II. and IV., and Atlas. 4. Berlin, 1877-85.

Richthofen (Ferd. von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei; and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai. 1871.

Rocher (E.), La province chinoise de Yünnan. Paris, 1880.

Scidmore (Eliza R.), China, the Long-lived Empire. New York, 1900.

Scott (Grace), Twenty-six Years of Missionary Work in China. London, 1897.

Scott (R. W. R.), The People of China. London, 1900.

Selby (T. G.), Chinamen at Home. London, 1900.

Simon (E.), China: Religious, Political, and Social. London, 1887.

Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to China viâ Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.

Smith (A. H.), Chinese Characteristics. 2d. ed. 8. London, 1895.-Village Life in China. New York, 1899.-China in Convulsion. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1901.

Temple (Sir R.), Population Statistics of China, in Journal of the Statist. Soc., vol. 48 1885, p. 1.

Thomson (J.), Through China with a Camera. 2nd ed. London, 1899.

Tiessen (E.), China, das Reich der achtzehn Provinzen. Berlin, 1902.

Townley (Lady Susan), My Chinese Note Book. London, 1904.

Ular (A.), A Russo-Chinese Empire. [Trans. from the French.] London, 1904.

Vladimir, The China-Japanese War. London, 1895.

Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom: a Survey of the Geography, Government, &c., of the Chinese Empire. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1899.-A History of China: Being the Historical Chapters from 'The Middle Kingdom,' with a Chapter on Recent Events by F. Wells Williams. London, 1897.

Wilson (J. H.), Travels and Investigations in the Middle Kingdom. New York, 1888. Wolf (E.), Meine Wanderungen. I. Im innern Chinas. Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1901. Younghusband (F. E.), The Heart of a Continent: Travels in Manchuria, &c. 8. 18841894. London, 1904.-Among the Celestials. London, 1898.

2. Chinese Dependencies.

Manchuria.

Hosie (A.), Manchuria: its People, Resources, and Recent History. London, 1901. James (H. E. M.), The Long White Mountain, or a Journey in Manchuria. London, 1888. Orloff (N. A.), Die Eroberung der Mandschurei durch die Transbaikal-Kosaken im Jahre, 1900. [Trans. from Russ.] Strassburg, 1904.-Dio Mandschurei. [Trans. from Russ.] Berlin, 1904.

Podznéeff (A.), Opisanie Manchurii. 2 vols. St. Petersburg, 1897.

Ross (Rev. J.), The Manchus; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress London, 1880.

Weale (B. L. P.), Manchu and Muscovite. London, 1904.

Whigham (H. J.), Manchuria and Korea. London, 1904.

Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With some Account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.

Tibet.

Papers on Tibet. Cd. 1920. London, 1904.-Further Papers on Tibet. Cd. 2054. London, 1904.-Further Papers on Tibet. No. III., Cd. 2370. London, 1905. Bower (H.), Diary of a Journey across Tibet. 8. London, 1894.

Candler (E.), On the Road to Lhasa.-The Unveiling of Lhasa. London, 1905.

Das (Sarat Chandra), Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. London, 1902.
Deasy (H. H. P.), In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan. London, 1901.