ministry, refused to pass a bill granting authorization to 54 congregations that asked for it. A law of July 8, 1904, decided on the suppression of all congregationist teaching within a period of 10 years.

Courses of instruction for adults, conducted in the evening by teachers in their schools or by associations in various places, in 1897-98 numbered 30,368, and the number of adult pupils was estimated in 1900 at about 483,000 (378,000 men and 105,000 women) Besides, there were many popular lectures.

Pupils on leaving primary schools can obtain a certificate; in 1902, 206,930 pupils (111,749 boys and 95,181 girls) obtained the certificate of primary instruction, and 2,847 (1,749 boys and 1,098 girls) that of higher primary instruction. In 1901, 45 per cent. of the conscripts could neither read nor write; in 1900 44 per cent. of the men married and 6.3 per cent. of the women signed the marriage register with a cross.

In 1902 there were granted 5,163 elementary licenses (brevets) to schoolmasters and 13,902 to school-mistresses; 1,316 higher licenses to masters, and 3,089 to mistresses; 3,762 certificates of pædagogic efficiency to masters, and 5,142 to mistresses.

The number of pupil-teachers in primary normal schools (exclusive of Fontenay and St. Cloud) was 3,897 men and 4,094 women in 1902.

The cost of public primary instruction was in 1877 for France, 89 million francs (of which 22 millions from the State); in 1897 for France and Algeria, 200 millions (of which 130 millions from the State). In 1902 the cost to the State and the Communes exceeded 238 millions. In the budget of 1905, the cost to the State is put at 175 millions. The cost of private instruction is not known.

Secondary Instruction: Boys.—Secondary instruction is supplied by the State and by the communes in the colleges, by associations and by private individuals in free establishments. It is regulated by the law of March 15, 1850, and several recent decrees. It was the subject of an extended inquiry made in 1899 by a commission of the Chamber of Deputies, the result being (October, 1902) a reorganisation of the studies in secondary schools. The course of study extends over 7 years, 4 in the first cycle, and 3 in the second, with four different courses of study. Moreover, steps have been taken towards legislation to secure the proper qualification of teachers in free secondary schools. The chief provisions of this new measure are that teachers must not belong to any unauthorised congregation, must have the diploma of licencié, and a diploma proving aptitude in teaching, and that free secondary schools must be open to State inspectors.

The law of March 15, 1850, which established the freedom of secondary instruction, has in recent years been keenly criticised by a section of the republican party, and projects of fresh legislation on the subject were in 1903 before the Senate. The number of public secondary schools for boys and the number of pupils in 1876 and 1901 were as follows:

In the lycées in 1879 there were 23,183 boarders and day-boarders, and 21,870 day-pupils. In 1902 the numbers were, respectively, 19,666 and 37,203. Since 1887 the number of boarders has decreased, while that of day-pupils has increased. In the colleges there were in 1902 12,377 boarders and day-boarders, and 21,841 day-pupils. Both classes of pupils have decreased in numbers since 1879. In the lycées 45 per cent. of the boys received classical instruction, 31 per cent. modern, and 24 per cent. were in the elementary or primary classes. In the colleges the proportions were, respectively, 29, 41, and 30 per cent.

In 1901 of the 67,643 pupils in the clerical institutions, 10,677 were in 44 institutions which existed in 1887, but were then classed among primary schools. Of the 77,370 pupils in private institutions, 1,576 followed courses of public instruction, and were included in the total number of pupils in lycées or colleges. In 1898 there were 5,403 boarders and day-boarders, and 4,388 day-pupils in the private lay institutions; in the clerical there were respectively 44,971 and 23,068.

Besides, there were in 1901, 140 small seminaries under the authority of bishops, intended primarily for the preparation of pupils for the ecclesiastical career. They contained 22,497 pupils (almost all boarders), of whom 20,000 received classical instruction.

In short, the lycées, colleges, private institutions, and small seminaries had altogether 185,510 pupils.

The bachelor's degree is the ordinary sanction of a course of secondary instruction. In 1900-01 the faculties admitted 4,457 bachelors in classics, 1,738 in modern instruction, and 1,190 in mathematics.

Girls.-Public secondary instruction for girls was organised by the law of December 21, 1880. It is given in lycées, in colleges, and in courses of secondary instruction, and it extends over six years. The normal school of Sèvres prepares teachers. For female, as for male teachers, there are competitive examinations for certificates. The following table shows the condition of the institutions for girls on December 30, 1887, and on November 5, 1902:

In 1903 the lycées had 2,653 boarders and day-boarders, and the colleges 1,420, the rest of the pupils being either under guardians or without supervision. There are no officially classed free institutions for the secondary instruction of girls, but, in fact, in several towns courses for this purpose are maintained. In Paris there is the Association for secondary instruction of young ladies at the Sorbonne, founded in 1867.

Higher Instruction is supplied by the State in the universities and in special schools, and by private individuals in the private faculties and schools. The freedom of higher instruction was established by the law of July 12, 1875, modified by that of March 18, 1880, which reserved to the State faculties the exclusive right to confer degrees. A decree of December 28, 1885, created a general council of the faculties, and the creation of universities, each consisting of several faculties, was accomplished in 1892, in virtue of the law of July 10, 1890.

Since 1870 a great extension has been given to higher instruction. The budget expenditure, which in 1870 amounted to 5,852,000 francs, had risen to 15,000,000 in 1900. Buildings have been erected on which the State and the communes have expended more that 100 millions of francs, among them being at Paris the enlarged schools of Medicine and Law, the school of Pharmacy, and the great monument of the Sorbonne, while other works have been carried out at Lyon, Montpellier, Lille, Bordeaux, &c. The number of chairs has been increased; thus, the Paris Faculty of Letters which in 1870 had 11 chairs, in 1904 had 33, besides 24 complimentary courses and 14 lectureships, while for sciences there were 31 professional chairs, 16 courses, and 15 lectureships. The range of instruction has been widened and diversified. In 1870 there were not quite 9,500 students in the faculties and higher schools: in January, 1904, there were 32,407.

The faculties are of five kinds: 2 faculties of Protestant Theology (Paris and Montauban) with 48 and 62 matriculated students, respectively, in 1903; 13 faculties of Law (Paris, Aix Bordeaux, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse), and the school in Algiers, which have from 4,512 (Paris) to 282 (Grenoble) matriculated students; 7 faculties of Medicine (Paris, 3,501; Montpellier, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Toulouse, Nancy, 269); 15 faculties of Sciences (Paris, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse), and the school at Algiers, having from 1,416 to 61 students; 15 faculties of letters (at the towns last named) and the school at Algiers, having from 1,703 to 64 students; 7 higher schools and mixed faculties, with from 1,394 to 67 students; 16 schools with full functions and preparatory schools of medicine and pharmacy, with from 412 to 75 students. The following statement shows the number of students by faculties or schools on January 15, 1902, 1903, and 1904 (exclusive of Algiers, 989, and of extra-central medical schools, 1,013, in 1904) :

:

In 1903 the total number of students in the public establishments was 29,423, of whom 28, 401 were French, 1,537 foreigners, and 1,330 were women (831 French, and 401 foreign). The numbers comprise not only matriculated students (among whom are students by correspondence), but also non-matriculated students.

There are free faculties: at Paris (the Catholic Institute of Paris comprising law and advanced scientific and literary studies); Angers (law, sciences, letters); Lille (theology, law, medicine and pharmacy, sciences, letters); Lyon (theology, law, sciences, letters), Marseille (law), Nantes (law), Toulouse (the Catholic Institute with theological, literary, and scientific instruction). These faculties had 1,494 students in January, 1902. The State faculties confer the degrees of bachelor, of licentiate, and of doctor. Admission to degrees (agrégations) is by special competitions which lead to the title of professeur in secondary and in higher instruction. In 1900-01 there were presented: in Protestant theology, 40 diplomas of bachelor, 1 of licentiate and 1 of doctor; in law, 276 certificates of capacity, 1,507 diplomas of bachelor, 1,460 of licentiate, 500 of doctor; in medicine, 1,152 of doctor, 123 of health officer and of dental surgeon, and 357 midwife certificates; in pharmacy, 601 diplomas, and 127 herbalist licenses (brevets): in sciences, 282 diplomas of licentiate (licencié), 42 of doctor, and 1,130 other certificates; in letters, 453 of licentiate, and 26 of doctor. The diploma of bachelor was, besides, conferred, on the classical side, in philosophy, on 4,457 candidates, and in mathematics on 1,190; on the modern side, in philosophy, on 506, in sciences on 291, and in mathematics on 941. State universities also grant diplomas of doctor.

The other higher institutions dependent on the Ministry of Public Instruction are the Collège de France (founded by Francis I. in 1530), which has 47 courses of highest study bearing on various subjects, literature and language, archæology, mathematical, natural, mental and social science (political economy, &c.); the Museum of Natural History giving instruction in the sciences and nature; the École Pratique des Hautes Études (history and philology, mathematical and physico-chemical sciences, and the sciences of nature and of religion), having its seat at the Sorbonne ; the École Normale Supérieure, which prepares teachers for secondary instruc tion, and from 1904 will follow the curricula of the Sorbonne without special teachers of its own; the École des Chartes, which trains the archivist paleographers; the École des Langues Orientales Vivantes; the École du Louvre, devoted to art and archæology; the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and

the Conservatoire de Musique et de Declamation; the Observatoire of Paris ; and the French Schools at Athens and Rome.

The principal institutions of higher or technical instruction dependent on other ministries are: the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers at Paris (with 20 evening courses on the applied sciences and social economy), the École des Hautes Études Commerciales, 12 higher schools of commerce with about 600 pupils, dependent on the Ministry of Commerce; the National Agronomic Institute at Paris, the Veterinary school at Alfort, national agricultural schools at Grignon, Nantes, Montpellier, &c., dependent on the Ministry of Agriculture; the École Polytechnique, the École Supérieure de Guerre, the military school at St. Cyr, the École de Cavalerie at Saumur, and other schools dependent on the Ministry of War; the Naval School at Brest dependent on the Ministry of Marine; the School of Mines at Paris, the School of Bridges and Roads at Paris, with other schools dependent on the Ministry of Public Works; the School of Mines at St. Etienne; the École Coloniale at Paris, dependent on the Ministry of the Colonies. There are, besides, free catholic faculties at Paris, Lille, Angers, and at Paris a great institution for free higher instruction, the École libre des sciences politiques.

Technical schools of a somewhat lower grade are very numerous, including 35 schools of industries, with 5,550 pupils (dependent on the Ministry of Commerce); 13 municipal professional schools in Paris, with 1,385 pupils and about 370 private schools, with 92,000 pupils.

Justice and Crime.

The Courts of First Instance in France are those of the Justices of Peace who try civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offences are disposed of. In criminal cases the Police Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver cases of misdemeanour (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 3 judges belonging to the civil tribunals. In all general cases, the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d'instruction), who, acting under the public ministry (Procureur), may dismiss the case or send it for trial. The Court of Assises is assisted by 12 jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to crimes involving a severe penalty. The highest courts are the 26 Courts of Appeal, composed each of one President and 4 Councillors for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury, and by one Court of Cassation which sits at Paris, and is composed of a First President, 3 Presidents of Sections, and 45 Councillors, for all criminal cases tried by jury.

For civil cases there is, under the Justice of Peace, in each arrondiseement, a civil tribunal of first instance, then the Appeal Courts and Courts of Cassation. For commercial cases there are Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of experts (prud'hommes).

All Judges are nominated by the President of the Republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil Supérieur of the magistracy.

The agencies for the prosecution of misdemeanours and crimes in 1901 appeared as follows:-Gendarmes, 20,974; commissaires de police, 1,105; agents de police, 15,970; gardes champêtres, 32, 150; private sworn 'gardes, 44,482; forest gardes, 7,724; fishery police, 4,074; customs officials, 21,729.

The following table shows the number of persons convicted before the various courts in five years :