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Society, but Anglican, Friends', Norwegian and American Lutheran, and Roman Catholic missions were also at work. The Christian population was estimated at 450,000 Protestants, and 50,000 Roman Catholics. Hospitals, colleges, orphanages, and about 1,800 schools, with 170,000 children, were connected with the various missions. Since the establishment of French rule, much has been done to break down the influence of Protestant missions in the island. Though decrees have been issued proclaiming religious liberty, the Catholic propaganda has nevertheless been pushed in such a manner that many native Protestants have been constrained to call themselves Catholic. The form of tenure of the real property of the missions required the adherence of Malagasy Christians of the same profession as the holders of the property, and many British mission churches were lost in 1897, through the failure of this condition. Many of these have, however, since been restored to the Protestant congregations. The outlying tribes are still mostly heathen.

Education is compulsory from 8 to 14 years of age. For Europeans there are lay schools for boys, for girls, and mixed, at five of the largest towns, their total number of pupils in 1903 being 299. Primary preparatory schools are organized under regulations of 1903, and provide instruction similar to that given to the younger pupils in the lycées and colleges of Franee. The native school system provides for primary schools for boys and for girls in Antananarivo and in rural circumscriptions, the teachers being mostly native. There are also regional schools for agriculture and industries, normal schools, a school of practical agriculture, a professional school with 7 European teachers, and 180 pupils, and a school of medicine with 6 teachers and 102 students. Private (or mission) schools are required to carry out the Government programmes, and throughout the island many Protestant and Catholic schools carry on successful work. Children are required to learn the French language.

For the administration of French justice there are a parquet consisting of a procureur-général and other officials, a court of appeal, six courts of first instance in the principal towns, organised under decree of June 9, 1896. For native justice there are a court of appeal and tribunals in the provinces and circles.

Finance.

The local revenue of Madagascar is derived chiefly from direct taxation (including a personal tax and taxes on land and houses), from customs and other indirect taxes, from colonial lands, from posts and telegraphs, markets, and miscellaneous sources, and from subventions granted by France. The chief branches of expenditure are general administration, public works, the post office, and the public debt. For the year 1903 the revenue and expenditure were estimated each at 23,507,000 francs; for 1904, at 24,526,000 francs. The expenditure of France on Madagascar and Diego Suarez in 1905, was estimated at 21,245,552 francs, of which the whole was for military purposes.

The debt of the colony consists of the converted Malagasy loan (1885) and a loan of 60,000,000 francs (1900) for railways and other public works.

Defence.

According to the budget of France for 1905, the troops in Madagascar (including the forces at Diego Suarez) consist of 3,949 Europeans, and 9,032 natives The police, gendarmerie, and militia are maintained on the local budget.

Production and Industry.

Of minerals, gold, iron, copper, lead, silver, zinc, antimony, manganese, nickel, sulphur, graphite, and lignite have been found. It seems probable that many parts of the island are very rich in valuable ores. The production of gold in recent years was in 1897, 79,115 grammes; 1898, 125,378; 1899, 401,423; 1900, 1,114,000; 1901, 1,045,000; 1902, 1,303,000; 1903, 1,910,000. In 1902, 1,535 kilogrammes of gold were exported; in 1903, 2,299. Cattle breeding and agriculture are the chief occupations of the people; there are about 2,800,000 cattle in the island; rice, manioc, sugar, coffee, cotton, cacao, vanilla, tobacco, and sweet potatoes are cultivated. Sericulture is encouraged. The forests abound with many valuable woods, while caoutchouc, gums, resins, plants for textile, tanning, dyeing, and medicinal purposes abound. The principal article at present produced in the island is caoutchouc, which is exported to London, Hamburg, and Marseilles. Silk and cotton weaving are carried on, and the manufacture of textures from the raphia palm fibre, and of metal work. Hitherto manufactures have been carried on mostly by natives with antiquated methods, but works for the preparation of sugar, rice, soap, beer, &c., are being undertaken by Europeans.

Commerce.

Before the French occupation the duties on imports were at the rate of 10 per cent. ad valorem, but in July, 1897, the French tariff was applied, with special rates for foreign imports. Since then the duties on cottons and other goods from the United Kingdom have been increased so as to be almost prohibitive.

The trade of Madagascar has been as follows in five years :—

1899

1900

1901

1902

1903

Imports
Exports

Francs Francs Francs Francs Francs 27,916,614 40,470,831 46,032,759 42,289,036 33,107,171 8,954,840 10,623,869 8,975,473 13,144,440 16,471,128

The chief articles of import and export in 1902 and 1903 were to the following values (in 1000's of francs) :

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Of the imports, 89 per cent. in value were from France, 17 per cent. from the United Kingdom. Of the exports, 60 per cent. were to France, and 4 per cent. to the United Kingdom.

The imports from Madagascar into the United Kingdom, and the exports

of home produce and manufactures from the United Kingdom to Madagascar in 5 years, according to the Board of Trade returns, were as follows:

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The chief imports from Madagascar were: rubber, 55,0067. in 1895, 27,5227. in 1903; hemp and other fibres, 9,6697. in 1903. The chief exports to Madagascar in 1903 were: cottons, 4,0187.; coal, 8,5667.; iron goods, 7,8031.

The French trade with Madagascar is fostered by protective legislation. Of the trade 44 per cent. passes through the port of Tamatave, 16 per cent. through Majunga and 11 per cent. through Diégo Suarez.

Shipping and Communications.

Tamatave, the principal seaport of the island, with a commodious harbour and a convenient wharf, is visited by the steamers of three French shipping companies, and the principal ports are connected with each other by steamers plying regularly. In 1903, 12,932 vessels of 2,441,764 tons visited the ports of Madagascar. Of the tonnage, 2,077,248 was French. There are as yet but few roads in Madagascar in the European sense of the word, and not many wheeled vehicles are employed. Almost all passengers and goods are carried on the shoulders of bearers, except where the rivers or coast lagoons allow the use of canoes; but waggon roads have been made from Tamatave to Antananarivo, from Antananarivo to Majunga, and between most of the chief military posts. The journey from Tamatave to the capital is at present accomplished partly by railway (71⁄2 miles), then by steamer along the lakes, and then for 150 miles by road from Mahatsara to Antananarivo. Railways to connect the capital with Tamatave are being pushed forward, the length of line open being about 20 miles.

There is postal communication throughout the island.

Automobiles

are used for the mail service between Antananarivo and Mahatsara on the east coast. The telegraph line has a length of 3,450 miles, and a cable connects with Mozambique. There is about 130 miles of telephone line.

Money and Banks.

The Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris has agencies at Antanànarivo, Tamatave, Diego Suarez, Mananzary, and Tulear; there is also a private bank, and the Banque Grenard, which draws on the Crédit Lyonnais.

The only legal coin is the silver 5-franc piece, with its silver sub-divisions as well as copper coins of 5 and 10 centimes, but the Italian 5-lire piece and Belgian, Greek, and other coins of equal value are also in circulation. For smaller sums the coin used to be cut up into fractional parts, and weighed as required; but this is now an illegal practice. The Government has withdrawn this cut money at the rate of 30 grammes of silver for 5 francs, and has replaced it by fractional silver and copper coin.

Consular and other Representatives.

OF GREAT BRITAIN IN MADAGASCAR.

Consul at Tamatave.—Anatole Sauzier.

Consul at Antananarivo.-T. P. Porter.

Vice-Consul at Majungà.-E. Cantal (acting).

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Madagascar. 1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Annual Statements of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions. London.

Correspondence respecting Treaty of December 17, 1885, between France and Madagascar. London, 1886.

Guide de l'Immigrant a Madagascar, 3 vols. Paris, 1899.

Antananarivo.

Guide-Annuaire de Madagascar et Dependances. Annual. Antananarivo.
Journal officiel de Madagascar. Daily since March 20, 1896.
Bulletin Economique.-Revue de Madagascar. Antananarivo,

Report of Rear-Admiral W. Gore Jones, C. B., on a visit to the Queen of Madagascar, London, 1883.

Correspondence between Great Britain and France respecting Madagascar. London, 1891 and 1898.

Treaties concluded between France and Madagascar, August 8, 1868; December 12, 1885, and September 30, 1895.

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Antananarivo Annual. 1875-1899.

Burleigh (B.), Two Campaigns: Madagascar and Ashantee. London, 1896.
Carol (J.), Chez les Hova, au Pays Rouge, Paris, 1898.

Catat (L.), Voyage à Madagascar (1889-90). Paris, 1896.

Carol (J.), Chez les Hovas, au Pays Rouge. Paris, 1898.

Cousins (Rev. W. E.), Madagascar of To-day. S. London, 1895.

Dawson (E. W.), Madagascar; its Capabilities and Resources. London, 1895.

Drury (Robert), Journal of Fifteen Years' Captivity. With Notes by S. P. Oliver. 8. London, 1890.

Ellis (Rev. W.), History of Madagascar, 2 vols.

London, 1838. Three Visits to

Madagascar. London, 1858. Madagascar Revisited. London, 1867.
Foucart (G.), Madagascar, Commerce, Colonisation. Paris, 1899.

Gautier, Guide du colon à Madagascar. Paris, 1896.--Essai de Geographie Physique. Paris.

Grandidier (A.), Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar. Paris, 1876. In 50 4to. volumes, with many hundred plates, still in progress.-Collection des Ouvrages anciens concernant Madagascar. 2 vols. Paris, 1904.

Gravier (G.), Madagascar. Paris, 1904.

Guillain (Captain), Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce la partie de occidentale de Madagascar. Paris, 1845.

Grosclaude (E.), Un Parisien à Madagascar. Paris, 1897.

Hanotaux (G.), L'Affaire de Madagascar. Paris, 1896.

Hartmann (Robert), Madagascar und die Inseln Seychellen, &c. In vol. lvii. of Das Wissen der Gegenwart. Leipzig, 1886.

Hellot (F.), La Pacification de Madagascar. Paris, 1900.

Hocquard (E.), L'Expedition de Madagascar. Paris, 1897.

Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.

Keller (C.), Madagascar, Mauritius, and other East African Islands. London, 1900.

Knight (E. F.), Madagascar in War Time. 8. London, 1896.

Lemure (J.), Madagascar: L'Expedition au point de vue médical, &c. Paris, 1896. Leroy (L.), Les Français à Madagascar. Paris, 1883.

Lyautey (Col.), Dans le Sud de Madagascar. Paris, 1903.

Madagascar au Début du XX Siècie. Paris, 1902.

Mager (H.), La Vie à Madagascar. Paris, 1899.

Maude (F. C.), Five Years in Madagascar. London, 1895.

McLeod (J. L.), Madagascar and its People. London, 1865.

Matthews (T. T.), Thirty Years in Madagascar. London, 1904.

Mullens (Rev. Dr. J.), Twelve Months in Madagascar. London, 1875.

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Oliver (S. P.), Madagascar and the Malagasy. London, 1866. Madagascar. 2 vols. London, 1886. The True Story of the French Dispute in Madagascar. 8. London, 1885. Olivier (Editor), Ce qu'il faut connaître de Madagascar. Paris, 1895.

Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales concernant l'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Paisant (M.), Madagascar. 2nd ed. Paris, 1895.

Piolet (Père J. B.), Madagascar: sa Description et ses Habitants. Paris, 1895. Madagascar et les Hova. Paris, 1895. Les Missions Catholique Françaises au XIX Siecle.

Vol. IV. Paris, 1902.

Pollen and Van Dam, Recherches sur la Faune de Madagascar. 5 vols. 4to. Leyden, 1868.
Routier (G.), Les droits de la France sur Madagascar. Paris, 1895.

Roux (J. Charles), Les voies de Communication, &c., à Madagascar. Paris, 1898.
Salle (Anfreville de la), À Madagascar. Paris, 1903

Shaw (Rev. G. A.), Madagascar of To-day. 12. London, 1886.

Sibree (Rev. James), Madagascar and its People. London, 1870. The Great African Island. London, 1880. Madagascar before the Conquest. London, 1896.

Vaissiere (Père de la), Histoire de Madagascar: ses habitants et ses missionaires. 2 vols. Paris, 1884. Vingt ans à Madagascar. Paris, 1885.

MAYOTTE AND THE COMORO ISLANDS.

These islands were in 1896 placed under the governor of Réunion, who appoints an administrator for Mayotte, a Resident for Grande Comore, and another resident for Moheli and Anjouan

The island of Mayotte (140 square miles) has a population (1898) of 11,640 inhabitants. There is an increasing emigration to Zanzibar and Madagascar. In 1902 there were 3 schools with 3 teachers and 78 pupils. The chief production is cane-sugar; there are 7 sugar works and 3 distilleries of rum. Vanilla cultivation has recently much extended. Coffee, tea, cocoa, and rubber cultures are being tried. In the year 1902, the imports amounted to 1,765,447 francs; and the exports to 2,694,720 francs. Of the imports the value of 729,000 francs were from France; of the exports the value of 2,380,000 francs went to France. Sugar and vanilla are the chief exports. Local budget (1900), revenue and expenditure, 293,807 francs. In consequence of the cyclone of February, 1898, the French Treasury lent the colony 500,000 francs, repayable in 20 years without interest. Expenditure of France (budget of 1905), 17,000 francs. The Glorieuse Archipelago (with 14 inhabitants) belongs to Mayotte.

The Comoro Islands, situated half-way between Madagascar and the African coast, consist of Grande Comore, Moheli, Anjouan, and a number of smaller islands, with an area of about 620 square miles. Sugar and vanilla are successfully cultivated, and the culture of coffee and of cloves is being tried. Each of the islands has its own budget, the total being about 259,711 francs. They receive no subvention. Grande Comore has a debt of about 950,000 francs. They now possess an important coal depôt. They were taken under French protection in 1886. The population is estimated at 47,000, chiefly Mussulmans.

RÉUNION.

Réunion, about 420 miles east of Madagascar, has belonged to France since 1764. It is administered by a governor assisted by a privy council, and an elective Council-General, and is represented in the French Parliament by a Senator and two deputies. It has an area of 965 square miles and popu lation (1902) of 173,315 (13,492 British Indians, 4, 496 natives of Madagascar, 9,457 Africans, 1,378 Chinese). The chief towns are: St. Denis, with 27,392 inhabitants in 1902; St. Pierre, 28,885; St. Paul, 19,617; St. Louis, 12,541. In 1901 the births numbered 4,787, and the deaths 6,345; excess of deaths, 1,558. Of the births, 1,352 (or 28 25 per cent.) were illegitimate. The births and deaths include still-births which are very numerous. Infant mortality is very great. The towns are under the French municipal law. The military force consists of 359 French soldiers. In 1902 there were

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