Government schools, National schools and Wakf Administration schools are all (with the exception of the Military School, under the management of the War Office) under the immediate direction of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction. 2 One of these has 25 students with 4 professors and belongs to the African Mission; the other belongs to the "American Mission." 3 The Mussulman schools of theology are attached to mosques, One Coptic school is attached to a Coptic church; this school has 7 students of theology, which subject is taught by priests, all other branches being taught by teachers of secondary subjects. 4 Attached to Coptic church. 5 43 of these schools having 4,800 pupils and 285 teachers are under directions of Europeans of different nationalities. A small number of these give instruction in the Christian religion. 6 Italian; known as Victor Emanuel school 7 34 of these schools with 3,345 pupils and 170 teachers are under European Justice and Crime. In The indigenous tribunals of the country are the Mehkemmehs, presided over by the Cadis. At the present time, they retain jurisdiction in matters of personal law (marriage, succession, guardianship, &c.) only, together with certain functions connected with the registration of title to land. matters of personal law non-Mussulmans are, however, in general subject to their own Patriarchs or other religious chiefs. In other matters, natives are justiciable before the so-called Native Tribunals established in 1884-89. These now consist of 44 Summary Tribunals, each presided over by a single judge with (generally speaking) civil jurisdiction in matters up to £E100 in value, and criminal jurisdiction in offences punishable by fine or by imprisonment up to three years; seven Central Tribunals each of the Chambers of which consist of three judges; and a Court of Appeal at Cairo, about half of its members being European. Under a law of 1903, there are also weekly sittings in every kism for the disposal of petty offences, the judge having powers up to a month's imprisonment or fine of £E2, and the prosecution being conducted by the police. In criminal matters there is always a right of appeal, sometimes to the Court of Appeal, sometimes to a Central Tribunal. In civil matters an appeal lies from a Summary Tribunal to a Central Tribunal in matters exceeding £E10 in value, and from the judgment of a Central Tribunal in first instance to the Court of Appeal, in all cases. The prosecution before Summary and Central Tribunals is entrusted to the Parquet, which is directed by a Procureur Général; the investigation of crime is ordinarily conducted by the Parquet, or by the police under the direction of the Parquet. Offences against irrigation laws, &c., are tried by special administrative tribunals. Owing to the Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as being part of the Ottoman Empire, foreigners are exempted from the jurisdiction of the local tribunals. Mixed tribunals were instituted in 1876, consisting partly of native and partly of foreign judges, with jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between foreigners of different nationalities. These tribunals have, also, a limited penal jurisdiction in cases of police offences, and in 1900 penal jurisdiction was conferred upon them in connection with offences against the bankruptcy laws. There are three Mixed Tribunals of First Instance with a Court of Appeal sitting at Alexandria. Civil cases between foreigners of the same nationality are tried by their own Consular Courts, which also try criminal cases not within the jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals, in which the accused are foreigners. By Decree of February 10, 1905, the International Tribunals are to be continued for a term of five years. Serious crime after steadily decreasing for a number of years has lately shown a tendency to increase again; the number of convictions in respect of minor offences has increased owing to the facilities afforded by the increase in the number of Summary Tribunals and to the increased efficiency of the authorities charged with the investigation of offences. The number of natives convicted in first instance in the year 1903 was, for crime, 1,938; for misdemeanour, 71,913; and for police offences, 96,921. Finance. The principal sources of the revenue of Egypt are the land tax, the tobacco monopoly, and the customs; the chief branches of expenditure are The service of the debt and internal administration. In five years the revenue and expenditure have been as shown in the following statement. The expenditure shown from 1902, however, includes sums paid to the General Reserve and other funds, but that for earlier years does not : The surplus in 1903 was £E2, 201,762, of which £E743,600 belongs to the Egyptian Government; £E1, 124, 121 is the net amount paid to the General Reserve Fund; £E265,037 has been paid to the Economies Fund, and £E69,004 is devoted to the Sinking Fund. The final accounts for the year 1903, and the budgetary estimates for the year 1905, are as follows: : 1 Exclusive of the Daira Sanieh and Domain Loans. The foreign debt of Egypt began in 1862, when loans amounting to 4,292,8007. were issued for the purpose of extinguishing the floating debt. Other issues followed in rapid succession, and in 1870 the amount of the foreign loans had increased to 38, 307,000l. To this was added in 1873 a loan of 32,000,000l. to pay off the floating debt, which had risen to 28,000,000Z. 1875 the Khedive announced that he was in difficulties, and in 1876, acting on French advice, he issued decrees consolidating the debt into one of 91,000,000%. In 1876 default took place on several of the loans, and in 1877 arrangements were made by representatives of the English and French bondholders for the consolidation of the debts into a Preference debt of 17,000,000l. at 5 per cent., and a Unified debt of 59,000,000l. at 7 per cent. The Daira loans were consolidated into the Daira Sanieh debt of 8,815,4307. at 5 per cent. In 1878 Domain Mortgage Bonds were issued to the amount of 8,500,000l. at 5 per cent., secured on Khedivial property to be administered by Commissioners. The dual control by England and France began in 1879. In January, 1880, the two Controllers-General reported that Egypt could not possibly meet her engagements in full, and in July the Liquidation Law, in accordance with the recommendation of an International Commission of the Great Powers, was promulgated. By this law the Unified debt was reduced to 4 per cent. interest; further conversions were made, and the Unified debt thus increased to 60,958,2407; certain unconsolidated liabilities were added to the Preference debt, which thus rose to 22,743,8007. ; and the Daira Sanieh debt was increased to 9,512,8807., the interest being reduced to 4 per cent. In 1885 a loan of 9,424,000l. at 3 per cent., guaranteed by the Great Powers, was issued. In 1888 a 4 per cent. loan of 2,330,000l. was contracted for the commutation of pensions. In 1890 the Preference debt and the loan of 1888 (just mentioned) were converted into a 3 per cent. Preference loan of 29,400,000l., including £E1,300,000 for irrigation and commutation of pensions. Also Daira Sanich 4 per cent. bonds for 7,299,360l. were issued for the conversion of the previously existing bonds; and in 1893 State Domain Bonds for 8,500,000l. at 4 per cent. took the place of the 5 per cent. bonds of the same debt. The condition and the charge of the various debts in January, 1904, was as follows: The charges on account of debts of all kinds (including tribute), as shown in the estimates for 1905, amount to £E4,593,602. In 1887, reserve funds were established, the unpledged balances of which, at the beginning of 1904, stood as follows: Defence. On September 19, 1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was disbanded by Khedivial decree. In December of the same year the organisation of a new army was entrusted to a British general officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. The present Sirdar is Major-General Sir Reginald Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O. There are 110 British officers serving at present in the Egyptian army. The army has a total strength of 15,916. The horses and mules number about 2,100, camels 574, and there are 250 guns (including old guns of position). ARMY OF OCCUPATION. General Officer Commanding. Major-Gen. J. R. Slade, C. B. Since the rebellion in 1882 an English army of occupation has remained in Egypt. Its present strength is 3,722. To meet the cost of this army, the Egyptian Government contributes 100,000l. annually. Egypt has now no efficient warships. Production and Industry. The total area, land and water, of Egypt is about 8,000,000 feddans (1 feddan=1·03 acre), and of this 5,704, 123 was cultivated in 1900. Of the total area cultivated, about three-fourths, called Kharaji lands, are, theoretically, held in life tenancy, the State being the ultimate proprietor. The tax (in reality rent) on these lands is unequally imposed, but averages about 22 sh. per feddan. Other lands, about one-fourth of the whole are called Ushuri, or tithe-paying. These lands were originally granted in fee and are subject to an impost or quit-rent averaging about 7 sh. per feddan. The corvée, or forced labour, has been abolished, but the inhabitants are still called out to guard or repair the Nile banks in flood time, and are also liable in any sudden emergency; in 1902, 4,970 men were called out. The agricultural population (Fellaheen) forms about 61 per cent. of the whole. A large proportion of them are small land-holders with under 50 feddans, while others, almost or altogether landless, are labourers, the relation between the employers and the employed being mostly hereditary. A considerable proportion of the land is under mortgage. The following table shows, for 1902, the number of landholders, the areas mortgaged, and the amount of the debt. Besides the debt here stated there is a certain amount unregistered, due notably by small proprietors : |