is very much heavier than hydrogen. It inflates more rapidly, but in this it is excelled by hot air; and while it is cheaper than hydrogen, volume for volume, it is no more economical, measured by the work to be done, and in the lifting of a given weight it exposes to the action of the wind a greater area of balloon surface than either the hot air or the hydrogen balloon. An actual improvement made was the adoption of the guide rope, or, as American aeronauts call it, the dragrope, due to a Mr. Welsh, who made ascensions for scientific purposes. This is a rope 1,000 feet or more in length, hanging from the ring to which the network and the car of the balloon are attached, as already described. Its original purpose was to minimize the waste of gas and ballast in travelling near the earth or water. As it trailed on or in the one or the other it lightened by some of its own weight the burden carried by the balloon, and thus enabled the aeronaut to maintain something of an even altitude without releasing gas or throwing out sand. It is esteemed by some aeronauts as a means of giving steadiness to the balloon, especially when the rope is hanging clear of the ground. None of the many who constructed and used balloons during the next seventy-five or one hundred years made any essential improvement upon them, other than those here noted, and the balloon of to-day, unless we consider the airship a balloon, is practically just what it was in 1783. The hot air balloon, because of the ease and rapidity with which it can be inflated, continues in use, serving the ends of those who, for exhibition purposes, make ascensions in order to drop from a great height by the aid of a parachute. The fact that this is frequently done, with but few accidents occurring, is worthy of attention because the principle involved in the parachute enters into another feature of aeronautics than that of the balloon, namely. the use of the aeroplane in flying machines. While the invention of the balloon conferred upon man the power of rising into the air and sustaining himself there, it left him at the mercy of the air currents, and his journeying by its aid has always been necessarily in the direction of the wind. Whatever attempts have been made to secure dirigibility for the balloon in its original form have been failures. In fact the proposition is an impracticable one, owing to danger which lies in subjecting the great surface of so frail a construction to any extraordinary pressure upon only a portion thereof. And so it is to be recorded that the only progress made in aeronautics during nearly a century subsequent to the invention of the balloon was in the limited adaptation of that bulky contrivance to practical purposes, involved in ascensions for scientific observation, for reconnaissance in military operations. and, as during the siege of Paris in the Franco-Prussian war, for escape from beleaguered places. It has proved itself remarkably useful in each of these several kinds of service, and has given results of permanent value in the use made of it by men of science. To enter into a detailed account of ascensions made in prosecution of scientific investigation would be to exceed the scope of this article. It is sufficient to state that the first was made in 1804 under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg; and that among the eminent men who sought and derived advantage from the studies they or their co-laborers might make by this means were such as Laplace, Sir David Brewster, Sir J. Herschel, Dr. Tyndall, Flammarion, the late Duke of Argyle, and members of various learned bodies in Europe and America. A number of valuable discoveries have been made and much important data gathered. For war purposes the United States Government was practically the first to employ the balloon, a corps of aeronauts being attached to the Union Army during the war of 1861-1865. The use made of balloons during the siege of Paris in 1870 has already been referred to. The French Government has been very active in the creation of special military services in aerostation, and the majority of other European nations have followed the example. Such a service was used advantageously by the British in the Transvaal war. Germany and Russia are interested in the matter, and in both of these countries the military balloons are at command of recognized scientists for such use as they desire to make of them. During the year 1901 aeronautic experiments, which had taken on especial activity within the preceding score of years, reached a most interesting point in the achievements of M. Alberto Santos-Dumont with his airship, or dirigible balloon. On July 12, in that year, M. SantosDumont made a successful trip through the air from the Longechamps race course, near Paris, France, to the Eifel Tower, some miles distant, passing around it and returning to the point of departure. There have been several repetitions of this experimental trip, and M. Santos-Dumont has satisfactorily demonstrated that his aerostat can be steered and managed generally, so as to pursue any specified course and to land at any designated point, under ordinary weather conditions. He has not given to the world, however, a veritable novelty in the type of aerostat which he employs. Dirigible balloons of a similar type were devised and constructed fully a quarter of a century ago, and the writer, who has been practically interested in aeronautics since 1865, saw one in 1877, which was successfully exhibited in a large hall in Boston. The envelope containing the gas was of the cylinderical form, pointed at each end, which is a feature in the SantosDumont, Zeppelin and other aerostats of recent date. A light but strong rod was suspended beneath this, and to the rod were attached the revolving fans for raising and propelling the machine, and the saddle for the aeronaut, who operated the fans by pedals, fust as a bicycle is driven. This machine was tried but once in the open air, the experiment resulting in its destruction, as it was impossible to control it in a breeze. Dr. F. A. Barton, of Beckenham, England, who is working upon the problem of a dirigible balloon for the British War Office, claims to have experimented with a machine almost identical with that of M. SantosDumont at Dover, England, in 1883. The fact stands, however, that Santos-Dumont is the first who has ever succeeded in making a safe and uninterrupted aerial flight involving the features of turning and landing at given points. Count Zeppelia's experiments on the Lake of Geneva were failures, and so far as results are concerned the Santos-Dumont airship appears to illustrate in their practical application the most advanced ideas connected with effecting and controlling the flight of such machines. It is, therefore, scarcely necessary to devote space here to consideration or description of any of its rivals. Plans and specifications for aerostats which their inventors claim or hope will accomplish wonders could be given to an almost unlimited extent, but until some one of them demonstrates its absolute merit none of them can be regarded as actual indications of progress in aeronautics. Mention must be made, however, of the airship constructed at Sheepshead Bay, New York, during the Summer of 1902, by Leo Stevens, a performing aeronaut and parachute adventurer. Mr. Stevens adopted the Santos-Dumont ideas to a considerable extent, one difference being in the substitution of a small hot air balloon within the gas balloon for the envelope which SantosDumont inflates with cold air when necessary to compensate for any loss of gas which may occur. Mr. Stevens made a successful trip of several miles on September 30, taking several turns. At the same time Mr. Elward C. Bolce made an equally successful trip with one of Santos-Dumont's airships, which had been on exhibition at Manhattan Beach, near the shed occupied by the Stevens aerostat. The two airships were in the upper atmosphere coincidentally, and the affair partook somewhat the nature of a contest. A more successful aerial flight than any yet made, measured by the distance covered, was accomplished on September 19, 1902, by Stanley Spencer, a practical aeronaut, with a machine differing somewhat from that of Santos-Dumont, though not in any essential point. One chief difference was that the propelling fan was placed forward instead of aft. Mr. Spencer made a trip over London and its suburbs, thirty miles in extent, his aerostat being under perfect control at all times, and taking any direction desired. It was long ago accepted as a demonstrated fact by most of the men of science that a solution of the problem of aerial travel cannot be expected from any use which can be made of the gas balloon. Such of them as believed the problem still capable of solution looked in the direction of mechanics, and there came to their side the students of bird flight, and of the capabilities of the aeroplane. Something of the principles of mechanics and of the aeroplane, it must be observed here, enter into the success of the SantosDumont airship. The inventor of that aerostat does not depend altogether upon the buoyancy of his craft for rising into the air, but by the shifting of weight longitudinally along the light framework under his balloon he secures upon the under surface of it that action of atmosphere or wind which operates upon such an aeroplane as the kite, for instance. The difference is, that while the kite is held against the wind by a string, and thus is made to rise, the Santos-Dumont airship is forced against the air or wind by its propelling machinery, and the element thus opposing its progress, striking it obliquely from beneath, forces it to rise. This principle appears also in the Stevens and Spencer airships. Various attempts have been made to construct flying machines modelled after the wings of birds, but these have never, in any instance achieved success. The employment of the aeroplane has been essayed by some inventors, and in this direction surprising work has been done by Dr. S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C. His aerodrome has made actual flights over considerable distances and at great speed, the first one being effected over a portion of the Potomac River and its shores, about thirty miles below Washington, on May 6, 1896. Dr. Langley had pursued investigation and experiment, together with the study of the physical laws affecting the problem of aerial flight, for many years prior to the construction of his flying machine, which is a mechanism with aeroplanes extending on either side like wings and driven by revolving fans operated by a small steam engine. It weighs many times more than the volume of atmosphere which it displaces, but sails through the air like a soaring bird, and has attained a speed of from twenty to thirty miles an hour. In its weight as related to that of the atmosphere it is far heavier than a ship of solid lead would be in the water, and it owes its support in the air to the rapidity with which it runs over the air beneath it, the force of this air on the under side of the aeroplanes, as developed by the high rate of speed, serving to maintain it. For the initial development of speed and its resultaut force it is necessary to project the machine into the air from a launching device, which imparts to it the motion thereafter maintained by its own machinery. The aerodrome consists of a hull formed of steel tubing, which contains a tubular steam boiler and a steam engine of one or one and a half horse power. The boller and firegrate welgh a little more than five pounds, and the engine and machinery about twenty-six ounces. The hull is attached longitudinally to a rod, which carries also a peculiar kind of rudder at one end, and a buoy or float at the other. A framework similar to the outrigger of a racing boat extends from each side of the hull supporting one of the propellers, of which there are two. Four wings, two on each side, extend outward and upward from the longitudinal rod toward its ends, the hull hanging beneath the space between the two pairs of wings, and the propellers occupying a position amidships. The wings are each slightly curved, and spread twelve or thirteen feet from tip to tip. The propellers are between three and four feet in diameter. It is possible to steer the machine either vertically or horizontally by means of its curious rudder. The entire length of the machine is about sixteen feet, and the weight is nearly thirty pounds. With the supply of water and fuel which can be carried the duration of its flight is about five minutes. Santos-Dumont Alighting. In the Santos-Dumont, the Stevens and the Spencer airships and in Dr. Langley's aerodrome we have the ultimate of progress in aeronautics up to the present time. Neither of them holds within itself all the promise of that ability to traverse the upper atmosphere at will and with advantage, for which mankind is longing. Santos-Dumont and others working along the lines which he is following propose to continue their experiments. Dr. Langley is prosecuting the series of studies and experiments which have resulted thus far so promisingly. Dr. F. A. Barton, on the other side of the ocean, hopes to combine the balloon and the aeroplane in an aerostat which will excel all others. These things, however, are all in the category of promise, and are not yet to be chronicled as progress. They may figure more largely in the next issue of this annual. Afghanistan. Capital: Afghanistan is a country of Central Asia lying between parallels 30° and 38°20' of north latitude, and between 60°30' and 74°30' of east longitude. Habibullah Khan, the reigning Amir, came to the throne in October, 1901, upon the death of his father, Abdur Rahman Khan. Under the hereditary prince are the four Nakims, or Governors, of Kabul, Turkestan, Herat and Kandahai, the four provinces which make up the monarchy. With slight exceptions the four millions of population are Mohammedans, with the sovereign at the head of the Church. The revenue of the state is variable. It was recently estimated at over $3,500,000. The Amir receives a small subsidy from the Indian Government. Amir of Afghanistan. Recently the Khans have attempted, with little success, to organize an army. However, there is an arsenal at Kabul, which, operating under English officers in the service of the Amir, can turn out 20,000 cartridges and fifteen rifles daily, and two field pieces weekly. Afghanistan's entire trade is by pack, across trade routes. Although unestimated, it is believed to be considerable, the commodities dealt in being metals, both base and precious; silks, felts, camel's hair, dye stuffs, sheepskins, carpets, rosaries and vast quantities of assofoetida-a strange mixture. Although there have been repeated rumors of disturbances within the Kingdom, and of unfriendly manoeuvers by both Great Britain and Russia against it, none of these things have yet materialized. The country is about 500 miles wide, from north to south, and about 600 miles long, having an area estimated at 270,000 square miles. It is generally rugged and mountainous, the elevation being, with few exceptions, 4,000 feet and more above the sea level. The climate is severe, being very cold in Winter and very hot in Summer. The trade with India is estimated at about $4,000,000 annually, but is restricted by the late Amir's oppressive trade policy. Alabama. Capital: MONTGOMERY. Alabama was formerly a part of Georgia, The State of Alabama has an area of 52,250 square miles, and in June, 1901, an estimated population of 1,862,000. Though primarily an agricultural State, manufacturing and mechanical industries have steadily increased during the past decade, due largely to the development of the extensive deposits of iron, coal, limestone and dolomite found in unusual proximity and quality in the Birmingham district. products of iron and steel amounted, in 1900, to $17,392,483, or 21 per cent of the total value of all the products of the State. The Related to the iron and steel industry is the manufacture of foundry and machine shop products and correlated with these is the manufacture of cast iron pipe, stoves, car wheels, boilers, engines, etc. Six railroads centre at Birmingham and large car shops are located there. In the manufacture of coke Alabama has the rank of second in the United States; the product in this industry in 1900 amounted to $3,726,433. Lumber and timber manufacturing come second in importance in the industries of Alabama, and related to these is the production of turpentine and resin. In the production of cotton this State stands third in the United States. In 1901 there were forty-nine cotton mills in operation and nineteen more either in the process of building or projected. In May, 1901, a Constitutional Convention met in Montgomery to revise or, rather, rewrite the Constitution of 1875, which, in accordance with the direction of Congress, guaranteed the negro specified right to vote. As a result of this old constitution, made during reconstruction days, intimidation and ballot stuffing, to maintain the supremacy of the whites, was extensively practised. The Democratic State platform, upon which the Constitutional promised the voters to secure the out disenfranchising any white man ting the Constitution of the United tic race feeling in Alabama than in owing largely to the educational the tact and ability of its presi Shortly after the convention have been drafted by Mr. Washing homely virtues of the negro, his takes that had been made, and ask nate justly between good and bad The convention adopted a suff ter that of North Carolina, contain one less displeasing to the negroes. double electoral qualification, so unless debarred for statutory rea qualifications make them desirable It provides that at any time lowing may register as life elec in the armies of the United States descendants of such persons, and acter and who understand the duties a republican form of government. of citizenship. a board of three are to be judges, though appeals Courts. Gov. William D. Jelks. Convention of 1901 was elected. rage plan, modelled something af- until December 20. 1902, the foltors: All persons who have served or the Confederate States, and all all persons who are of good charand obligations of citizenship under Of this good character and duties registers appointed in each county may be taken to the State not previously registered as life as follows: Those who can read or tion, and who, unless physically some lawful occupation or calling After January 1, 1903, all those electors may vote who are qualified write any article of the Constitu disabled, have been engaged in for the greater part of twelve months preceding the time they desire to register, or those who are either bona fide owners of forty acres of land in the State or owners of real estate or personal property whose assessed value is $300 or more. The clause prescribing that the voter must have been engaged in some lawful occupation was stated to have been aimed against the negroes of the younger generation who were sufficiently well educated not to be debarred by an educational qualification, but who, being nevertheless too lazy to work, were undesirable citizens generally and apt to be politically corrupt. The constitution also provides for quadrennial instead of biennial elections and sessions of the Legislature, for an advisory Board of Pardons, consisting of the Secretary of State, the Attorney General and the State Auditor, to advise with the Governor as to all petitions for pardons, but that the Governor may act either in accordance with or contrary to their recommendations. It provides that if a prisoner escape from a sheriff through the latter's fault, and suffers death or bodily harm, the sheriff may be impeached and removed from office and shall not be eligible to other office during the time for which he had been elected as sheriff. It prohibits the Legislature from ever passing an act authorizing or legalizing marriage between a white person and a negro or the descendent of a negro. The election for the ratification or rejection of this Constitution was held November 11, 1901, and the vote cast was 108,613 for adoption and 81,734 for rejection. The total vote. 190.347, was larger than the vote for Governor in 1900, when it was 162,319. This was probably due to the fact that the full strength of the negro vote was brought out. According to the census of 1900, a little more than 59.5 of the male negroes of voting age in Alabama are illiterate. An increase of the minimum school appropriation to $1.100,000 makes more and better schools possible and the negroes of the better class accept this as a sign of a larger negro vote in the future. Not only the Alabama Democrats favored the suffrage system of the new Constitution, but the white Republicans adopted it without extensive opposition. The State Republican Committee, at a meeting held August 4, 1902, adopted the following resolution: "That only those shall be permitted to participate in the State and County convention who are duly qualified voters under the new Constitution of Alabama.** At the convention held September 16 this resolution was adopted by the delegates. The Republican State Convention met at Birmingham September 17, and the platform, adopted after much discussion, expressed faith in the Republican Administration and especially in President Roosevelt. and favored his nomination for President in 1904. In Birmingham on September 18, during a speech by Booker T. Washington, in Shiloh Baptist Church, a ery of "fight" was mistaken for "fire," and in the stampede which followed nearly 100 persons focated or trampled to death, all of them negroes, though several whites who were present were injured. were suf Hlaska. Capital: Alaska, the northernmost territory of the industry at present is mining gold, copper, and most recently Bessemer iron ore, which has been found on the islands along the coast. Since the purchase in 1867 it has brought the Government nearly $9,000,000,000 in revenue. Alaska is well supplied with volcanoes, either active or "fossilized." Among the best known are Mount Wrangell, which is usually smoking, Mount Blackburn, Mount Redoubt, Mount Illiamna and Mount Augustine. In May, 1902, Mount Redoubt became violently eruptive, and on May 3 there was a heavy eruption, ashes being carried for a distance of 90 miles and covering the ground for dozens of square miles in extent. Mount Blackburn also became active during 1902, and while the eruption was not intense, the earthquakes which accompanied it broke up the surface of the famous Muir glacier and caused the lower end to become disrupted. There has been some discussion in Alaskan newspapers on the subject of a territorial form of government, There are but few who call and some agitation on the part of a few people. Owners of taxable property, however, are said to be opWere the lands surveyed and opened for posed to a change at present on account of the expense of official salaries. Alaska home. and but comparatively few resident owners of land. settlement, says the Governor in his annual report for 1901, there would be a large increase of population, especially of Finlanders, who are anxious to settle in Alaska if they can be assured of holding property with safe titles. Congress usually appropriates the sum of $30,000 for public schools, though in 1901 the appropriation was cut down by the corporated towns support their own in Alaska, and criminals who are Washington: McNeil's Island, Oregon State Insane Asylum, and nine persons had been committed. sumption, la grippe and pneumonia the natives, but to no alarming ex In The mining industry in Alaska the season of 1901 and 1902, and it region of Nome for the two seasons the most common, for it needs but deposits of gold-bearing quartz have as a general thing the ore body is does not average more than $2 a found in paying quantities, and dis been reported. Copper mines have shore and rich deposits of iron have the head waters of the Koyukuk mining camps there were established Committee on Appropriations. In- was vigorously prosecuted during On January 6, 1902, the Federal ander McKenzie, to take possession Nome, were sentenced at the United Judge Noyes was fined $1,000 for K. Wood and his assistant, C. A. months and one year, respectively. one year's imprisonment and a fine doned by President McKinley in health. McKenzie was president of formed to get possession of all fake processes of law. Noyes, Wood and Frost aiding him. They defied the summonses of the higher court and ran things with a high hand until reached by United States marshals and arrested. in February, 1901, and was parfour months on account of failing the East Alaska Gold Company, mining claims at Nome through It was reported during 1902 that diamonds had been discovered near Cape Nome and that they were of large caret and good quality. Henry Hanks, former State geologist of California, says that he discovered microscopic diamonds in the sands at Nome, but no large specimens. During the past two years attempts have been made at raising hardy vegetables and cereals and have Barley and oats are sown for hay, which is been generally successful. The cabbages raised near Skagway are large and solid and bring about $80 a ton. Attempts at raising fruit have not been Potatoes do well near Dyea, though irrigation is necessary. packed in silos, there being too little sunshine to cure it properly. Wild crab apples grow in southeast Alaska, and it is expected that these can be grafted very successful. and a hardy apple cultivated. This kind of work is being carried on at experiment stations. Up to the present time there is but one railway line completed in Alaska, the White Pass & Yukon. Projected railways are the Valdes Eagle Railway, along the Valdes Copper River, to be 400 miles in length, and the Klondike Mines Railway, through the Bonanza Creek district, from Dawson to Stewart River, a The Governor in his annual report for 1901 puts forth distance of 82 miles. The Trans-Alaska Company and the Trans-Alaska Railway Company are asking for rights in the Illiamna Bay country, along one route. the needs of a railway from Valdez to the Tarana and Yukon rivers. The question of the boundary between Alaska and Canada stands at present on a temporary compromise between the two countries. To Great Britain the United Staes has ceded certain rights in the disputed territory and has been given other rights claimed by Canada. In 1824 agreements were adopted by Russia and the United States and by Russia and Great Britain, Russia relinquishing claims to maritime jurisdiction and agreeing not to establish any trading posts south of north latitude 54 degrees 40 minutes, and the United States not to establish any posts north of this latitude. This left the question of the boundary south of this latitude to be settled by the United States and Great Britain. In 1839 Russia gave a lease of the greater part of Alaska, including most of the disputed territory, to the Hudson Bay Company, a British corporation. In 1867 Russia conveyed to the United States all her rights in Alaska. The conveyance was by treaty, and the boundary line was the one defined by Russia in her treaty with Great Britain in 1825. This boundary was set out as follows: From the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, at 55 Then it was to follow the summit of the degrees and 40 minutes north latitude and between 131 and 133 degrees west longitude, the line was to Whenever the extend north to 50 degrees north latitude on the continent. mountains parallel to the coast to the point of intersection of the 141st meridian, and from this point and Prince of Wales Island was to belong to Russia. along this meridian to the frozen sea. summits of the mountains were more than 10 marine leagues from the coast, the line was to be parallel to the windings of the coast, not more than 10 marine leagues distant. There was no dispute regarding this boundary until a few years ago. Since the discovery of gold in Alaska Canada made claim to a large portion of the mainland, alleging that the true meaning of the boundary of 1825 is that the line should not follow the windings of the coast, but should extend interiorly from a line intersecting headlands and promontories along the coast. The provisional boundary agreed upon by Secretary John Hay and Victor Herbert, British Charge d'Affaires, in October, 1899, in the modus vivendi which now stands, is a line indicated by monuments at White Pass, Chilcoot Pass and along the Klehini River and Porcupine Creek. This places in American territory the towns of Dyea and Skaguay, and the head of Lynn Canal and Pyramid Harbor. The agreement calls for free passage for persons going to or from Porcupine Creek along the trail between the creek and the junction of the Klebini and Chilkat rivers, subject to customs regulations. By this agreement Canada conceded to the United Staes about 100 miles of disputed territory and Canada received from the United States concessions to about 10 miles. In April, 1902, considerable agitation was caused in Washington and in Canada by a report that a boundary monument set by Russia had been removed by a Canadian surveyor. The Canadian Government denied the entire affair, and an investigation was begun by Captain W. H. Richardson, of the Eighth U. S. Cavalry. Captain Richardson reported finding nothing suspicious, but a surveyor, J. P. Cummings, claimed to have torn down the monument under the impression that it was built to hide surveyor's field notes. On August 18, 1902, Lieutenant George Emmons, U. S. A., reported having found boundary monuments and a Russian stone house on the summit of Mount Chilkat, placing the entire Porcupine mining district and the placer gold and copper camp of Rainy Hollow within the American territory. A military post has been established at Haine's Mission, near the disputed territory. Though the flow of fortune hunters continues in the direction of Alaska, reports seem to show that the country is beginnig to lose many of its attractions. Placers are being worked dry of gold, and but few new discoveries have been made in the past year. It has been estimated by Assistant Canadian Gold Commissioner Senkler that the output of gold for the whole territory for 1902 will be not more than $14,000,000, against $21,000,000 for 1901. Summarizing the needs of Alaska, the Governor, in his report for 1901, says that the district wants land laws in their fullness, land surveyed for immediate settlement, a delegate in Congress and a worthy representative at the St. Louis Exposition in 1903. In the Yukon territory gold dust is generally used to liquidate debts, and merchantable gold dust, thoroughly cleaned, is worth on an average $16 an ounce. The ordinary commercial dust, mixed with black sand and crushed white quartz. is worth from $14 to $15 an ounce. By the new order regarding a royalty of 2% per cent without exemption on exported dust the merchant is obliged to lose the discount on dust at $16 an ounce and pay export tax as well. In order to protect themselves and establish the territory on a currency basis, the merchants have decided to accept merchantable dust at $15 an ounce and pay the 21⁄2 per cent export tax. Anarchy and Nihilism. Among the important matters of legislation which occupied the attention of the Congress of the United States during the session of 1901-2 was that of protecting the life of the President. Especial attention had been directed to this subject by the assassination of President McKinley in September, 1901. The fact that Mr. McKinley was made a sacrifice to anarchical fanaticism caused the proposed legislation to include measures for the suppression of anarchism. In relation to the question of anarchism the Government of the United States. like that of Great Britain, has declined all overtures of other governments to unite in some form of repressive action. This declination was based on the unwillingness of these two governments to open a possible way for the extradition of political offenders. While that position is still adhered to, it is not considered that it would be affected by the adoption of laws to suppress the movement and all of its manifestations within our own country. Accordingly the Senate passed a bill which fixed death as the penalty for any attempt, successful or unsuccessful, to take the life of the President, his possible successor, or any representative of a foreign government visiting the United States. Aiding, abetting, advising or counselling such an attempt was to be punished by imprisonment for twenty years, and threatening by written, printed, or spoken words the life of any such person was to be punishable by ten years' imprisonment. On June 9 the House of Representatives passed a substitute bill, which not only contemplated the punishment of crimes against the President, his possible successor, and against the heads and representatives of foreign governments, but also legislated to some extent against the general profession or teaching of Anarchy. The two branches of Congress were unable to come to an agreement upon legislation covering the ground, and the bills here described got no further than to be referred to a committee of conference, representing the two Houses. The necessity for some law in the line of the measures proposed will inevitably bring the question again before the national legis lators. The Legislature of the State of New York, acting upon the suggestion of Governor Odell, made in his annual message on the opening of the session of 1902, considered the question of Anarchy, with the result that a bill was passed and approved. Governor Odell, in his message, referred to the assassination of President McKinley, and declared that "those whose utterances have a tendency to incite to disorder or murder should be punished." The law enacted, which is now Chapter 371 of the Laws of 1902, defines criminal Anarchy" thus: "Criminal Anarchy is the doctrine that organized government should be overthrown by force or violence, or by the assassination of the executive head, or of any of the executive officials of government, or by any unlawful means. The advocacy of such doctrine, either by word of mouth or writing, is a felony."' Anarchism and Nihilism are two movements of a socio-political character which many people confuse as one and the same thing. While they are closely related they differ in origin, in character and in aim. The one is international, while the other centres its interest upon a single country; the one aims at general revolution, while the aim of the other is to effect a revolution of conditions in Russia alone. Of the two, therefore, the first, which is Anarchism, claims the larger degree of attention, because its principles and the actions resulting therefrom affect the entire world. A concise definition of Anarchism is that one given by E. V. Zenker in a monograph upon the subject wherein he says: "Anarchy means in its ideal sense, the perfect, unfettered self-government of the individual, and, consequently, the absence of any kind of external government.' This is the theory, held merely as a philosophy by some who would secure its application by the process of general education and peaceful revolution; but held by others as an incentive to and justification of action, developing even into violence, whereby its application can be forced upon the world. Thus it is that among Anarchists there are various classes, from the philosophic thinkers, possessed of Utopian ideas of what his philosophy would bring to pass, down to those restless and impetuous enemies of organized order who band themselves together in a pact for assassination. And it is because those last mentioned derive their inspiration to crime from the thought evolved by the former that law-creating and law-abiding society has begun to regard even the utterance of the thought as a crime. It is not necessary to trace the genesis of Anarchism farther than to the writings of Pierre Joseph Proudhon, a native of Besancon, France, the birthplace of the celebrated Socialist, Fourier. Proudhon, born in humble circumstances in 1809, was naturally a student, and obtained educational advantages unusual for one of his station, by dint of his own perseverance, self-denial and ability to excel in contests for such academic prizes as enabled him to devote time to collegiate life. In his philosophy he became first s Socialist, and then, under the influence of Karl Marx, an Anarchist. His famous declaration that "property is theft" was an aphoristic expression of his view that service pays service, a day's labor balancing a day's labor, and the duration of labor constituting the just measure of value. He regarded property and capital as the power of claiming the results of labor without giving an equivalent, taking possession of these |