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into four classes. These are, first, the rural districts, where the peasantry and small landholders are the electors; they choose a voter for every 500 inhabitants, these voters electing the representatives. Secondly, the towns; third, the chambers of commerce in the cities and large towns; and fourth, the large landed proprietors, payers from 51. to 25l. of taxes, according to the district in which their estates are situated. In this last class females in possession of their own property are entitled to vote. Under a law passed in 1882, the franchise was extended to all male persons in towns and rural districts paying direct taxes to the amount of 10s. per annum. Bohemia sends 92 representatives to the Reichsrath, being 1 representative to 60,443 inhabitants; Galicia 63, or 1 to 94,585 inhabitants; Lower Austria 37, or 1 to 62,989 inhabitants; Moravia 36, or 1 to 59,816 inhabitants; Styria 23, or 1 to 52,765; Tyrol 18, and Upper Austria 17, being 1 each to almost 44,700 inhabitants. The smallest number of representatives is from Vorarlberg, which sends 3, or 1 to 35,791 inhabitants. The most highly represented province is Salzburg, which sends 5 members, or 1 to 32,714 inhabitants. At the election of 1879 there were 1,290,769 electors in Austria, although those who actually voted were only 462,169. The duration of the Lower House of the Reichsrath is for the term of six years. In case of dissolution, new elections must take place within six months. The emperor nominates the president and vice-president of the Upper House of the Reichsrath, while those of the Lower House are elected by the members. It is incumbent upon the head of the State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The rights which, in consequence of the diploma of Oct. 20,1860, and the' Patent' of Feb. 26, 1861, are conferred upon the Reichsrath, are as follows:-1st, Consent to all laws relating to military duty; 2nd, Co-operation in the legislature on trade and commerce, customs, banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters; 3rd, Examination of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State; of the bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds; and general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills passed by the Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as the sanction of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper and the Lower House have the right to propose new laws on subjects within the competence of the Reichsrath.

The executive of Austria Proper consists of the following eight departments :

1. The Ministry of the Interior.-Count Edward Taaffe, born at Vienna, February 23, 1833; entered the State service, 1857; Provincial Governor of Salzburg, 1863-67; Minister of the Interior, 1867-70; Provincial Governor of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 1871-79.

Appointed Minister of the Interior and President of the Austrian Council of Ministers, August 19, 1879.

2. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. -Baron S. Conrad D'Eybesfeld, formerly Governor of the province of Lower Austria. Appointed Minister of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, February 17, 1880.

3. The Ministry of Finance.-Privy Councillor Dr. J. Dunajewski. Appointed Minister of Finance, June 26, 1880.

4. The Ministry of Agriculture.-Count Julius Falkenhayn, born at Vienna, February 20, 1829; entered the army 1848, and retired 1858; editor of the journal Vaterland,' 1859-76. Appointed Minister of Agriculture, August 19, 1879.

5. The Ministry of Commerce and National Economy.-Baron F. Pino von Friedenthal. Appointed Minister of Commerce and National Economy, January 14, 1881.

6. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung).— Major-General Count S. von Welsersheimb. Appointed Minister of National Defence, June 25, 1880.

7. Ministry of Justice.-A. Prazak. Justice, January 14, 1881.

Appointed Minister of

Besides the seven ministers, heads of departments, there is a 'minister without portfolio,' F. Ziemialkowski (appointed August 12, 1879), taking part in the deliberations of the cabinet, but not exercising special functions.

The responsibility of ministers for acts committed in the discharge of their official functions was established by a bill which passed the Reichsrath in July, 1867, and received the sanction of the emperor on the 21st of December, 1870.

Hungary.

The constitution of the eastern part of the Empire, or the Kingdom of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania, dates from the foundation of the kingdom, about 895. There exists no charter, or constitutional code, but in place of it are fundamental statutes, published at long intervals of time. The principal of them, the 'Bulla Aurea' of King Andrew II., was granted in 1222, and defined the form of Government as an Aristocratic Monarchy. The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly suspended and partially disregarded, until, at the end of the armed struggle of 1849, it was decreed to be forfeited by the rebellion of the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860; and the present sovereign, on the 8th of June 1867, swore to maintain the Constitution, and was crowned King of Hungary.

The legislative power rests conjointly in the King and the Diet, or Reichstag. The latter consists of an Upper and a Lower

House, the first known as the House of Magnates, and the second as the House of Representatives. The House of Magnates was composed, in the session of 1884, of 751 members, namely 2 Princes of the reigning house; 50 Archbishops, Bishops and other dignitaries of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches; 692 Peers and dignitaries of Hungary and Transylvania; 5 regalists from Transylvania; and 2 deputies of Croatia.

The Lower House, or House of Representatives of Hungary, is composed of representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all male citizens, of 20 years of age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, or on an income varying with occupation; but in all cases very low (in the cases of merchants and others as low as 10l. 5s.). Certain large classes-professional, scientific, learned, and others—are entitled to vote without other qualifications. The number of the electorate, according to the last returns, was 821,241, or 1 in 18 of the population. No distinction is made, either as regards electors or representatives, on account of race or religion. New elections must take place every three years. By the electoral law in force in the session of 1884, the House of Representatives consisted of 447 members, of whom 337 were deputies of Hungarian towns and districts, 75 from Transylvania, 34 delegates of Croatia and Slavonia, and 1 from Fiume.

The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry, consisting of a president and nine departments, namely:

The Presidency of the Council.-Colomann Tisza de Boros-Yenö; appointed President of the Council of Ministers, February 25, 1875. 1. The Ministry of Finance.-Count Gyula Szapary, appointed December 6, 1878.

2. The Ministry of National Defence.-Baron Bela d'Orczy, appointed December 26, 1883.

3. The Ministry near the King's person (ad latus).-Baron Bela d'Orczy; appointed August 12, 1879.

4. The Ministry of the Interior.-Colomann Tisza de Boros-Yenö, President of the Council; appointed December 6, 1875.

5. The Ministry of Education and of Public Worship.-Dr. August de Trefort, appointed February 26, 1877.

6. The Ministry of Justice.-Dr. Theodor Pauler, Minister of Justice, 1872-75; re-appointed December 6, 1878.

7. The Ministry of Communications and Public Works.— Baron de Kemény, appointed October 14, 1882.

8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce.-Count Szechenyi, appointed October 14, 1882.

9. The Ministry for Croatia and Slavonia.-Count de Bedekovich, appointed February 26, 1877.

The sovereign of Hungary, though acknowledged Emperor of Austria-Hungary, is styled 'King' in all public acts.

Croatia and Slavonia have a common diet of their own, and for internal affairs, religion, instruction, and justice, are autonomous, the governor or president being appointed by the Emperor.

Church and Education.

The State religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, but there is complete toleration for all dissenters from it, of whatever form of belief. The following table shows for 1880 the numbers, in thousands, of the various religious denominations, and the relative percentage of each, in Austria and in Hungary, as well as in the whole Empire.

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In Austria Proper the Roman Catholic Church has (1880) 7 archbishoprics-Vienna, Salzburg, Görz, Prag, Olmütz, Lemberg, Zara; 23 bishoprics, and 2 vicar-generals; 36 theological seminaries, with 180 teachers, and 1,150 pupils; 461 monasteries with 6,896 monks; 429 nunneries with 8,727 nuns; and 15,026 clergy (1880). The Byzantine Greeks have 2 archimandrites, 1 bishop, and 412 clergy; the Greek Catholics 1 archbishop, 1 bishop, and 2,110 clergy; and the Armenian Catholics 1 archbishop, and 14 clergy, in Austria. In Hungary proper there are (1882) 3 Roman Catholic archbishopricsGran, Erlau, and Kalocsa; 1 archabbacy, 16 bishops, 27 theological seminaries, 120 teachers, and 725 pupils; 222 monasteries with 2,139 monks, 144 nunneries with 1,602 nuns; and 6,782,116 adherents. In Croatia-Slavonia there is 1 Roman Catholic archbishop and 2 bishops, 4 seminaries, 71 monasteries, and 16 nunneries. The Greek Catholics have 1 archbishop (Fogaras) and

5 bishops in Hungary, and 1 bishop in Croatia-Slavonia. The Byzantine Greeks have 2 archbishoprics (Carlowitz and Hermannstadt), and 6 bishops in Hungary, and 2 bishops in CroatiaSlavonia. The ordinary income of the Austrian dioceses alone is over 1,300,000. The value of the church property is over 19,000,0002. The various religious bodies have an income of 400,000l.; and the value of their property, landed and other, is estimated at about 9 millions sterling. In the budget of 1884-5 the total sum contributed to Catholic worship from Austrian State funds is 482,8947., and to Byzantine Greek worship 8,750l. By a law passed in April 1868, civil marriage and the perfect equality of all religious creeds are established.

The Protestant clergy are chosen and supported by their congregations. In the budget of 1884-5 the sum of 10,6007. is set down as the contribution from Austrian State funds to Protestant worship. The Protestants of the Augsburg Confession were divided in Hungary proper into 51 diaconates, with 1,149 ministers, and 1,092,067 adherents in 1882; and of the Helvetic Confession into 56 diaconates, with 2,211 ministers and 1,954,061 adherents.

In 1880, 32.59 per cent. of males and 36-08 per cent. of females above 6 years in Austria could neither read nor write. In Galicia it rose to 74.24 per cent. of male illiterates, and 79.92 of female; Bukowina, 84.22 males and 90-79 females; Dalmatia, 82.06 males and 92.68 females. In the Hungarian lands 44 per cent. of men and 53.5 per cent. of women could neither read nor write. It was enacted by a series of decrees issued in the years 1848 and 1849, that education should be general and compulsory (between the ages of 6 and 14), and the principle, though not adhered to in Transleithan Austria, nor in those parts of Cisleithan Austria inhabited by people belonging to the Slav race, was fully carried out among the Teutonic population of the Empire. The cost of public education mainly falls on the communes, but of late years the state has come forward to assist in the establishment of schools for primary education. The total sum allotted to education in the Austrian budget of 1884-5 is 1,276,235l., of which 340,1677. was for high schools (including universities), 94,700l. for technical high schools, 598,6137. for middle, real, and special schools, and 191,0301. for Volks

schulen.'

There are seven universities in Austria, at Vienna, Prague, Graz, Innsbruck, Cracow, Czernowitz, and Lemberg, two in Hungary, Buda Pesth and Klausenburg, and one in Croatia, Agram.

The following table exhibits the statistics of the entire educational machinery of Austria-Hungary for 1884 for the universities, and 1882 for the schools:

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