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with 25 bishoprics besides those of Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea; other Christian sects have stations in many parts of the country, the number of Protestant converts being estimated at 20,000.

Most of the aboriginal hill-tribes are still nature worshippers, and ethnically are distinct from the prevailing Mongoloid population. Education of a certain type is all but universal, and there are few adults who cannot read and write. There is a special literary or lettered class who alone know the Mandarin literature, to the study of which they devote their lives. Yearly examinations are held for literary degrees and honours, which are necessary as a passport to the public service. Recently, Western literature, and especially works of science, have been introduced in translations, and there is a foreign college at Pekin, which embraces both a literary and scientific curriculum. There are numerous Roman Catholic and Protestant missions.

Army and Navy.

According to Chinese official statistics the army is composed as follows:

1. The Eight Banners, including Manchus, Mongols, and the Chinese who joined the invaders under the Emperor Shunchili in A.D. 1644-total 323,800. Of these 100,000 are supposed to be reviewed by the Emperor at Pekin once a year. The number of guards in the Forbidden City, each of whom holds military rank, is given as 717.

2. The Ying Ping, or National Army, having 6,459 officers and 650,000 privates. The pay of the infantry is from 5 to 10 shillings a month, and .the cavalry receive about 17., out of which they must feed their horse, and replace him if the one originally supplied by the government is not forthcoming.

It is impossible to obtain any very reliable information about the Chinese Army, but it is stated that great improvements have taken place since the last occasion upon which Chinese troops were opposed to Europeans. Large quantities of foreign-made arms have been purchased, and the arsenals in China, under foreign supervision, are said to be daily turning out both arms and ammunition. Captain Norman, in his book, 'Tonquin,' divides the army as follows:

I. The Active Army, comprising,

1. The Army of Manchuria;

2. The Army of the Centre; and,
3. The Army of Turkestan.

II. The Territorial Army.

He gives the number of the Army of Manchuria as 70,000 men, divided into two army corps, the head-quarters of the one being at Tsitsihar the capital, and of the other at Moukden. Many of these troops are armed with the Mauser rifle, and possess a liberal supply of Krupp 8 centimètre field cannon. The Army of the Centre, having its head quarters at Kalgan, an important town to the N.W. of Pekin, is numbered at 50,000 men in time of peace. This number, however, can be doubled in case of war. The men are a hardy race, and are armed with Remington rifles. The army of Turkestan is employed in keeping order in the extreme western territories, and could not, in all probability, be moved eastwards in the event of war with a European foe. The Territorial army, or ‘Braves,' is a kind of local Militia, capable of being raised to a strength of probably 600,000 men. The numbers are kept down in time of peace to 200,000. The Tartar cavalry of the north are mounted on undersized but sturdy ponies. The small size of their horses, and their wretched equipment, render them no match for European cavalry. Permanent Manchu garrisons under Manchu officers are established in a few of the great cities on the coast, and along the frontier.

China has lately acquired a considerable Navy; the ships are many of them of an advanced type. The northern squadron. defending the capital, is the most powerful, and has been efficiently drilled and organised by an English naval officer.

In 1884 the Chinese Navy possessed 2 powerful armoured ships of modern type, built in Germany, and detained there at the close of the year in consequence of the doubtful relations with France. These are sister ships, named the Teng-Yuen and Chen Yuen, They are of 7,400 tons displacement, 6,200 horse-power, and of 15 knots speed. Their armour (steel-faced) is 14 inches thick, and they each carry four 12-inch Krupp breech-loading guns in two towers, protected by 12-inch armour. The disposition of the towers resembles that of the turrets on the Inflexible.

A third protected cruiser, also built in Germany, was launched at the end of 1883. She is of 2,300 tons displacement, has a protective deck over machinery and magazines, and carries two 8-inch Krupp guns in a barbette, protected by 10-inch armour. During 1884 two armoured cruisers, the Nan Thin and a sister ship, built at Kiel, have been despatched to China. They are of steel, of about 2,200 tons displacement, and each carry two 8-inch Armstrong guns, besides a number of 40-pounders and machine guns. Two swift cruisers (unarmoured), built by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co. in 1881, are also attached to the North China Squadron. Their hulls are of steel, they steam 16 knots, carry two 26-ton Armstrong guns, and four 40-pounders, and are only of 1,400 tons displacement. To the same squadron belong 10 or 12 gunboats, built by the Elswick

firm, each carrying a single heavy gun-26-ton or 38-ton. This type of gunboat was originated by Mr. G. Rendel, and there are very many examples in the Royal Navy, but with smaller guns than are carried by the Chinese vessels.

The squadrons of Loo-Choo, Shanghai, and Canton include between 40 and 50 unarmoured cruisers, corvettes, sloops, and gunboats. There is a cruiser of 2,150 tons, and 2,400 horsepower. Some of these vessels are of considerable size and power. The cruiser Yang-on, of 1,600 tons displacement, and 1,250 horse-power, and five other vessels, were destroyed by the French at Foochow in 1884. Still larger vessels are reported to belong to the Shanghai division, and are of Chinese construction. Several torpedo-boats of high speed and capable of using Whitehead torpedoes have also been acquired recently.

Area and Population.

Hitherto the population of China, it is believed, has been much over-estimated; good authorities would reduce it to 250 millions, which the Statistician to the Chinese Customs Department considers is probably nearer the truth than any of the higher estimates. A census for fiscal purposes reported to have been taken in 1882 is stated by the United States' Minister to give a population of 255,000,000. The following tables give a statement of the area and population according to Behm and Wagner's 'Bevölkerung der Erde,' 1882.

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The territories of Corea and Annam are sometimes added to th' total. The ordinary native name of the country is Tsyo Syeun, Keirin. The monarchy is hereditary and of an absolute type, mode' on that of China, as is also the penal code; there is a hereditary tocracy. There is no standing army, but all the men are lia' military service. The State religion resembles that of China

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dhism and the Laotse doctrines prevail among the people, while Confucianism is common among the upper classes. The language seems intermediate between Mongolo-Tartar and Japanese, but the Chinese system of writing is used. The area is estimated at 82,000 square miles, and the population from 8,000,000 to 15,000,000; an official enumeration is stated on Japanese authority to give the population at 16,227,885 in 1881; while recent statistics give 2,356,267 families, and 10,518,937 inhabitants-5,312,523 males, and 5,206,414 females. The capital, Seoul, has about 250,000 inhabitants.

Corea has from the earliest period in recorded history been treated as a vassal of China, but has always had its own king and government, the Chinese never interfering with the purely internal affairs of the peninsula. A Corean mission proceeds annually to Pekin, bearing tribute, which consists mainly of presents for the Emperor and the palace officials. During the past two years European Powers and the United States have, without objections from China, concluded treaties with Corea as with an independent nation. Owing to recent political disturbances, a large Chinese force is encamped in the neighbourhood of Seoul, the capital, for the purpose of preserving order; but it does not otherwise interfere with the administration, which is composed wholly of natives. By an agreement with Corea in 1884, Japan maintains a force of 1,500 men at the capital.

A customs service, conducted by foreigners, somewhat similar to that of China, and under the superintendence of the Chinese customs department, has been established. The Japanese have for many years had trading stations in Corea, and consular agents at certain ports, and have even claimed suzerain rights over the country. According to Japanese returns the total import trade of Corea in 1881 amounted to 388,9471., of which 40,4137. came from Japan, and the remainder from other countries. Of the total imports the bulk consisted of cotton goods, mostly of English origin, valued at 304,7701. In the first half of 1882 the imports were valued at 148,512l., among which was 7,5361. of copper coin. In 1879 the imports amounted to 113,7807., and in 1880 to 195,6001. In 1881 the export trade was valued at 376,5307., in 1880 at 274,7301., and in 1879 at 135,4107.; the leading exports are ginseng, hides and rice, beans and peas, and silk. Much of the country is mountainous, and the proportion of cultivated land is not large; the principal crops are rice, millet, beans and jute.

For ANNAM, see FRANCE.

According to the most trustworthy estimates, partly based on official returns, the area and population of each of the eighteen provinces are as follows:

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According to a return of the Imperial customs authorities, the total number of foreigners resident in the open ports of China was 5,297 at the end of 1883. Among them were 2,463 natives of Great Britain and Ireland; 433 of the United States; 532 of Germany; and 332 of France, all other nationalities being represented by very few members. About one-half of the total number of foreigners resided at Shanghai.

Trade and Commerce.

The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the United Kingdom and the British colonies. The total net imports into China amounted in 1883 to 73,567,702 haikwan taels, or 20,614,283.; and the total exports in 1883 amounted to 70,197,693 haikwan taels, or 19,669,9791. In the ten years from 1874 to 1883 the imports increased 12 per cent., and the exports decreased 3 per cent. In 1883 somewhat less than one-fourth of the imports came directly from, and one-third of the exports went directly to Great Britain. About two-fifths of the imports came from Hong Kong, and about one-fourth of the exports went to that port, which acts as an emporium for Great Britain, Australia, America and India. About a fourth of the imports came from India, which, with the British colonies, takes a large share of the exports. Next to Great Britain and her colonies comes the Continent of Europe, except Russia, with 665,2461. of imports, and

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