Gützlaff (C. F. A.), China Opened; or, a Display of the Topography, History, Arts, Commerce, &c., of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 1838. Hall (J. C.), A Visit to Corea in 1882; in Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, 1883. London, 1883. Hippisley (Alfred E.), China: a Geographical, Statistical, and Political Sketch. 4. Shanghai, 1877. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862. Huc (L'Abbé E. R.), L'Empire chinois. 2 vols. Lauture (Comte d'Escayrac de), Mémoires sur la Chine: Gouvernement. 4. Paris, 1864. Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870. Martin (Dr.), Sur la statistique relative au dénombrement de la population en Chine. In 'Bulletin de la Société de géographie de Paris.' 8. Paris, 1872. Martin (D.), L'Opium en Chine; étude statistique et morale. 8. Paris, 1872. Medhurst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London, 1872. Oppert (Ernst), Corea: a Forbidden Land. London, 1880. "Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8. London, 1860. Pallu (Lieutenant Léopold), Relation de l'Expédition de Chine en 1860, rédigée d'après les documents officiels. 4. Paris, 1864. Ratzel (Friedrich), Die Chinesische Auswanderung. 8. Breslau, 1876. Reclus (Elisée), Nouvelle Géographie Universelle. Tome VII. Paris, 1882. Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegründeter Studien. Vols. I., II. and IV. 4. Berlin, 1877-82. Richthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei; and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871. Ross (Rev. J.), The Manchus; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress. London, 1880. Sacharoff (J.), Historische Ubersicht der Bevölkerungsverhältnisse Chinas, in Arbeiten der K. Russ. Gesandtschaft zu Pekin über China. 2 vols. Berlin, 1858. Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustände im Süden und Osten Asien's. 8. Stuttgart, 1871. Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. 6. Paris, 1872. Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to China viâ Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870. Werner (Reinhold), Die preussische Expedition nach China, Japan und Siam. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1863. Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom: a Survey of the Geography, Government, &c., of the Chinese Empire. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1883. Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With some account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870. DUTCH EAST INDIES. (NEDERLANDSCH OOST-INDIË.) Constitution and Government. WITH regard to administration, the Dutch possessions in the East Indies are divided in (1) Java and Madura, and (2) the Outposts— Sumatra, Borneo, Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Banca, Billiton, Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, and the small Sunda islands. Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands, is administered, politically and socially, on a system established by General Johannes Van den Bosch, in 1832, and known as the 'culture system.' It is based in principle on the officially superintended labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a sufficiency of food for themselves, but the largest quantity of colonial produce best suited for the European market. The whole of Java-including the neighbouring island of Madura -is divided into twenty-two provinces, or residencies, each governed by a Resident, who has under him several AssistantResidents and a number of subordinate officials called Contrôleurs. All these functionaries must have gone through an examination previous to their appointment by the Government. The Resident and his assistants exercise absolute control over the province in their charge, not, however, directly, but by means of a vast hierarchy of native officials. There is a regular and unceasing personal intercourse between the native chiefs and the Contrôleurs, who act as she immediate agents of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries or percentages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives. Formerly, the 'culture system' comprised the forced labour of the natives, employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo, pepper, tea, tobacco, and several other articles. At present, the labour of the natives is only required for the produce of coffee and sugar. By the terms of a bill which passed the legislature of the Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of the sugar cane will be totally abolished in 1890. In the Outposts the culture system' has never been introduced. They are administered by functionaries with the titles of Governor,' 'Resident,' Assistant- Resident,' and 'Contrôleur.' เ เ The superior administration of Dutch India, and executive, is in the hands of a Governor-General. He is assisted by a Council of five members, partly of a legislative, partly of an advisory characThe members of the Council, however, have no share in the executive. ter. Governor-General.-O. Van Rees, appointed January 21, 1884. The Governor-General represents not only the executive power of government, but he has the right of passing laws and regulations for the administration of the colony, so far as the authority is not reserved to the legislature of the mother-country. But he is bound to adhere to the constitutional principles on which the Dutch Indies are governed, and which are laid down in the 'Regulations for the Government of Netherlands' India,' passed by the King and States-General of the mother-country in 1854. Revenue and Expenditure. The local revenue is derived from taxes on houses and estates, from licences, customs duties, personal imports, the Government monopolies of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But the chief portion of the large profits is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of coffee, grown under the 'culture system,' and sold in India and Europe. The total revenue according to the budget estimates for 1885 is 141,879,307 guilders, and the expenditure 143,136,408 guilders, showing a deficit of 1,257,101 guilders. There have been very few deficits during the past twelve years, the surplus on the contrary being generally very considerable. The sources of revenue were stated as follows in the budget for the year 1885 : : Receipts in the Netherlands from sales of Government coffee (31,946,261 guilders), cinchona (376,200 guilders), tin (4,356,551 guilders), railways (1,215,000 guilders), various (740,090 guilders), total Receipts in India from sales of opium (15,618,000 guilders), import, export, and excise duties (10,250,000), land revenue (18,750,000 guilders), sales of coffee in Java, &c. (7,768,800 guilders), sales of salt (7,167,000 guilders), from all other sources (43,691,405 guilders) Total revenue Guilders 38,634,102 103,245,205 About one-third of the annual expenditure is for the army and navy, and another third for the general administration, both in Java and in the Netherlands. Army and Navy. In 1883, the strength of the army, as well for Java as for the other Dutch possessions in the East Indies, was 30,421, comprising 15,032 Europeans and 15,389 natives. The European troops consist of natives of various countries, recruited by voluntary enlistment. No portion of the regular army of the Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service; but individual soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding officers, and they form the nucleus of the army of Dutch India. The native and European soldiers are not divided into separate corps, but generally mixed together, however, in separate companies in the same battalions. The artillery is composed of European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are Europeans and natives. The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in Dutch India, is divided into field and garrison battalions. In the former there is a greater proportion of Europeans than in the latter. Each company is composed separately either of Europeans or of natives, but the European and native companies are mixed in the same battalion, in the proportion of one-third to two-thirds. Each battalion is composed of four companies, the two flank companies consisting of European soldiers, and the two centre companies of natives. The companies often contain half-castes,' negroes, and Christianised natives of India, all on a footing of perfect equality with the Europeans. The native companies are composed of the different Mahometan and heathen tribes of Netherlands' India, mixed together so as not to allow of any great preponderance of race or religion. The whole of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the exception of a few natives of high rank, and in each of the companies composed of natives at least one-half of the non-commissioned officers must also be Europeans. A great number of the soldiers, both Europeans and natives, are married, and are allowed to be always accompanied by their families, except when on active service in the field. A military academy is established at Meester Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion. Unlike the army, which is purely colonial, the fleet of war in Dutch India is partly colonial, partly belongs to the royal navy, and its expenses are therefore borne partly by the mothercountry and partly by the colony. The royal navy consisted, in the end of 1883, of 28 vessels, manned by 2,528 Europeans and 1,114 natives, the colonial navy of 71 vessels, manned by 96 Europeans and 1,291 natives. Area and Population. The total area of Dutch India is estimated at 655,000 English square miles, with a population of 27,883,895 at the end of 1882. For details as to population, see Netherlands, p. 363. The area of Java, including Madura, embraces 50,848 English square miles, with a population of 20,259,450 at the end of 1882, or 398 per square mile. The population more than quadrupled since the year 1816, when the British Government, after a tempo rary occupation extending over five years, restored the colony to the Netherlands. The following table gives the numbers of the population at various periods, and annually, on the 31st of December, from 1816 to 1880, according to official returns :— Slavery was abolished by a law of the States-General of the Netherlands, passed in 1856, which took effect on January 1, 1860. There were at this date 5,265 slaves in the colony, for each of whom, without regard to age or sex, the owner received 400 florins, or about 337., in compensation. The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government property, and it is only in the residencies in the north-western part of Java that there are private estates, chiefly owned by natives of the Netherlands. The bulk of the people are agricultural labourers. The Government or private landowners enforced one day's gratuitous work out of seven from all the labourers on their estates; in 1882 the greater part of these enforced services for Government were abolished, in return for the payment of one guilder per head yearly. Great power is vested in the Resident and his European and native officials to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour. 6 Owing to the agrarian law' (1870), which has afforded opportunity to private energy for obtaining waste lands on hereditary lease (emphyteusis) for seventy-five years, private agriculture has greatly increased in recent years, as well in Java as in the Outposts. The whole population of Java is legally divided into Europeans and persons assimilated with them, and natives and persons assimilated with them. The former are generally under the laws of the |