Notice that in Prussia shame, fear of punishment, drives children to commit suicide, while in Italy the strongest motive is family or home trouble. The figures for Italy appear to be somewhat unreliable. The last column, particularly, looks suspiciously regular.

15.-MUSEUMS IN SCHOOL.

France.-In the year 1888, at the general teachers' meeting in Frankfurt-amMain, a speaker claimed that every school should have its own local museum, in which should be kept not only the tools of all the trades and industries, but also the raw material necessary for those trades, as well as the finished products in their development from the smallest and simplest beginnings to their completion. This demand, made in all earnest, has been recognized as just in France for some years, at least partly. The school museums in that country (called local museums) form an indispensable means for object lessons. Their establishment was an unavoidable consequence of universal application of objective teaching, which had been advocated by such men as Montaigne, Rabelais, Fenelon, and Rousseau and others, especially after the great revival of popular elementary instruction (since 1871). Men of science and educational leaders were eloquent in advocating the teaching of visible things and processes in preference to empty words.

The French school museums contain natural and art productions which are suitable for offering clear concepts of things surrounding the child. All these objects are systematically and methodically arranged, and adapted to each grade of school. It is most instructive to learn the history of these museums. Their beginning dates back to the year 1867. At the "World's Exposition" in Paris a few collections of objects were exhibited and Madame Pape-Carpentier gave lectures in which she dwelt on the good use to which these collections might be put in schools. This suggestion fell upon fertile soil, and when in 1873 M. Buisson reported upon the Vienna Exposition he could already state, that France was not behind other countries in matters of school museums, and that some provinces (departments) possessed more than a hundred of them filled with agricultural and industrial objects. Their number has increased rapidly. It is noteworthy that most of them had their origin in the initiative of the teachers who began, aided by their pupils, to collect models and natural objects, and arrange them systematically. In 1890 France had over 14,000 school museums, which are to be distinguished from simple collections of beetles, mineral and the like, such as may be found in almost any school where natural history is the hobby of the teacher.

Legal provisions for the establishment of school museums are not in existence in France. It was not a question of introducing a new branch of study or a new method of teaching, but simply a question of procuring the means for teaching object lessons. The authorities merely issued some suggestions for managing the instructions and exhibited a lively interest in them. A new impetus was given the idea of school museums through the report of M. Buisson, mentioned above, in which the various collections for school purposes exhibited in Vienna were minutely described. This report did much to awaken interest among local authorities, so that a few years later-in 1882-all the inspectors (superintendents) reporting on the schools of their districts and provinces were unanimous in acknowledging the usefulness of these collections for elementary school instruction.

Through public lectures to teachers on the subject of objective teaching, M. Buisson, in 1878, succeeded in awakening great enthusiasm among teachers. On

returning home they resolved to follow the example set and establish museums. Soon after there was scarcely a province of France (department in which teachers did not from the rostrum and through the press agitate the introduction of object lessons and school museums.

Most of the museums were established by teachers and pupils themselves, who bore the expense; hence material aid on the part of the state was not necessary. Some communities defrayed the cost of original establishment, others brought collections offered by private citizens. All were agreed upon the principle that instruction in things without having the things to show is irra tional, and that both in the kindergarten and primary school the same method of object lessons should be followed which a mother applies in order to create ideas, namely, by means of objects and not words. The child must be led to know the objects within its vicinity distinctly. This is best accomplished by means of the intuitive method for whose application the reading lesson offers the best opportunity. During a reading lesson a great variety of objects are mentioned, and if they can be given into the children's hands attention is secured, the mind is being sharpened, the power of judgment developed in short, the child is accustomed to distinct seeing and clear comprehension. The teacher is enabled to abridge verbal explanations where he has objects to show; he can thereby make his lessons more interesting, banish the ghost of indifference from his class room and keep alive the joy in work. After the children have left school they are not apt to lose the desire to observe, to reflect, and to judge. If the school museum had no other result than this that one alone would justify its establishment and maintenance. A school museum offers no little advantage also to the study of language; the child learns to express its ideas better; its vocabulary is increased more rapidly; it replies more fluently when it sees and handles things, and it certainly remembers technical terms more easily than in the utter absence of objects.

Experience has shown all this in schools where museums are kept, while in schools which are without museums the teachers have great difficulty in accustoming their pupils to a clear and distinct expression and flow of thought. It is generally considered best to have the museums established by the pupils themselves under the guidance of their teachers, aided by friends of popular education outside of the school. Care must be taken to proceed methodically, for it is not a question of preparing for exhibition some apparatus or objects of luxury or "curios," which must not be touched from fear of breaking or injuring them. The museum should contain those objects which illustrate the teacher's instruction; objects should be selected which cost little or nothing and may easily be procured by the pupils. The more the pupils participate in gathering the objects to be placed in the museum, the more intense will be the interest in the lessons, for every one wishes to view the objects his comrade has contributed. If these suggestions are followed the museum will be made by the school, for the school. It was a wise remark of M. Buisson when he said: "The great advantage of a school museum is, not in having it, but in making it."

In order that the objects brought to school be safely placed where they are protected from dust and remain visible and easily accessible, a good-sized cupboard with glass doors is recommended. In case the school authorities refuse to procure it, an appeal is made to a friend of the school, or to some wealthy parents of pupils. Such an appeal is rarely made in vain in France. In most schools a cupboard is used large enough to accommodate the juvenile library of the schools, as well as the museum of objects.

At first mistakes were made in getting school museums. Some teachers went too far in their zeal by collecting objects which stand in no relation to elementary instruction. Others, not intending to be surpassed, bought and procured more or less complete collections, instead of letting their pupils bring the objects as they were needed. It is evident that the true purpose aimed at was missed. Large museums which dazzle the eye of the children are injurious rather than useful in school; for since the children do not know all the objects exhibited they care little for them, and interest turns into indifference. Costly museums in which the "wonderful objects on exhibition" bear the label "Hands off!" are not in their proper place in the elementary school, which is to be a workshop for mental work. Neither will ready-made collections suffice; they serve for decoration more than for actual study.

However, these mistakes were soon rectified. The teachers now proceed methodically, generally classifying the objects according to the natural kingdoms. In Havre, one of the most progressive cities in France in educational affairs, another classification has been adopted. The school museums in that city are

divided into: (1) Objects of food; (2) objects of clothing; (3) objects pertaining to the dwelling; (4) miscellaneous objects Each group has a number of divisions. This classification has recently been adopted by other schools, because it seemed more practical and suitable than the other, affording an easier finding of objects and also an easier cataloguing.

It goes without saying that the teacher is the chief custodian. He must not refuse a single object, in order not to hurt the feelings of his pupils. He must urge them all to bring objects for exhibition, so that they are able to say "our museum," not "the museum."

A chief characteristic of the school museum is that it is never complete. The pupils must know that there is always something missing. When, during geography lesson, for instance, it should be said," Such and such a thing is needed to fill a vacancy in the museum," the pupils either individually or collectively procure it. Thus the museum remains an object of interest. Of course, every object found worthy of preservation is to be described, numbered, labeled, and placed in its proper compartment. The name of the donor may be attached, and this naturally incites further efforts. Many objects are collected during excursions which the teacher makes with his school into the country and the mountains, through factories, along wharves, and through parks. Thus it becomes possible to gather in these school museums all the objects illustrating the natural and artificial products of the town or village in which the school is situated. Commerce, various industries, agriculture, forestry, all are represented.

The law of July 27, 1882, prescribes for the elementary schools, "instruction in the elements of agriculture, horticulture, physics, and natural history." Though the mere rudiments is all that can be expected, the study of physics requires some apparatus. Some normal schools induce their students to get practice in making such apparatus themselves in their school workshops and then allow them to take these objects with them, if they are appointed to a teachership, to use them as a ground stock at their collection of apparatus. In the Grenoble Normal School every student is required to make a certain number of objects for illustrating the study of physics. The State pays for the material about 10 francs (or $2) per student.

To the legitimate contents of a good school museum belong pictures, charts, photographs, etc., for they aid instruction essentially. Generally, pictorial illustrations play an important rôle in French school instruction. Recently magic lanterns (solar and calcium light cameras) are used, owing to the active work of the "Society for Promotion of Object Lessons." These cameras are sold at very reasonable prices.

If the museums are thus provided with all the necessary and useful objects, selected according to pedagogical principles and local circumstances, an agricultural population will have a different collection in its schools from that of an industrial population, and a girls' school is apt to have a different collection from a boys' school. It goes without saying that the institution will be a prolific source of incentive to study.

The idea of school museums is not a new one. It was first carried out in Germany, but at present France has left Germany far behind in fostering and supporting the institutions. Victor Cousin once said: "The true greatness of a nation does not consist in not imitating others, but on the contrary, in borrowing good ideas from them and adapting them to the existing conditions of the culture at home." (After L. Fleischer.)

16.-NATIONAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS.

Argentine Republic.-When the Argentines freed themselves in 1810 from the yoke under which they had bowed for three centuries there was practically no education in the Republic. There certainly was a somewhat decayed university (for Spaniards and Indians) founded in 1622 at Cordoba, but its influence was as valueless as its work. The early history of the Republic was hardly favorable to the establishment of a regular educational system, but the clouds were gradually clearing away; and from the promulgation of the constitution of 1853, which received its final form in 1860, the progress of public instruction, until the temporary financial disturbances of a year ago, has been uninterrupted. There are 2 universities, Cordoba and Buenos Ayres (1821), 15 secondary schools, 35 normal schools, 2,396 primary schools, and 831 private schools. Primary instruction is free and obligatory for all children between the ages of 6 and 14 years of ages. Urban districts of between 1,000 and 1,500 inhabitants and rural districts of from

300 to 500 have a right to a public school. If the obligations laid upon the community by the state are satisfied by existing private schools, or by an individual family, there is no compulsion to attend the public schools. In such cases the progress of the children is regularly tested by the state by means of periodical examinations. If found unsatisfactory the aid of the law is invoked.

Besides the usual subjects of instruction in primary schools, it is worth noting that the Argentine curriculum involves instruction in morals and manners, hygiene, the duties of the citizen, and gymnastics. Girls are taught domestic economy and manual work; in the country lessons are given in agriculture. If a minimum of 15 parents claim religious instruction for their children the law authorizes the engagement of ministers of the different creeds for this purpose, the teaching to take place of the school hours. But the claim has never been advanced, so it may be said that instruction in the Republic is wholly secular. The administration of the schools is in the hands of a national council, guided by the minister of public instruction. Each province has a council with limited powers and each district a school council, generally composed of teachers, professors, and local dignitaries, the latter being appointed by the national council. Hygienic inspection is undertaken by a body of doctors, under the direction of the Government. The teachers are as a rule trained in the normal schools; no one is allowed to teach in the public schools without the normal diploma, or if a foreigner without satisfying the authorities of the normal school as to his or her abilities, and in addition passing an examination in pedagogy. The teachers are allowed to retire after twenty years' service on their full pay at date of retirement; with three-quarters of their pay after fifteen years, and with half pay after ten years' service, or after accident or injury suffered in the service of the state. There is no corporal punishment. The hours are from 11 in the morning to 4 in the afternoon, broken by four periods of from ten to fifteen minutes each. The classes are not allowed to be larger than forty. Women are preferred to men as teachers, and where the schools are mixed there are only women employed; the head of the boys' schools is always a man, but most of the teachers are women. In 1888 there were 825 teachers-616 women and 209 menemployed in the capital alone. So much for primary instruction.

The oldest of the fifteen "national colleges," or secondary schools, was founded more than two hundred years ago; that of La Plata was founded in 1884. The secondary schools are under the immediate control of the minister, who appoints the principals and arranges the curricula. The principals only teach from four to eight hours a week, and after ten years' service may retire with half, after fifteen with two-thirds, and after twenty-seven with the whole of their pay as pensions. The boys on entry must have passed through the highest classes of the primary schools, or an equivalent, and on leaving they pass the baccalaurate examination; the whole course professes to be a complete preparation for the university. No Greek is taught, Latin is the subject of much dispute, and the whole level of the instruction given is very low. State scholarships have been suppressed, but a private association has founded eighty. There are 2,626 pupils at the schools, 927 of whom are at Buenos Ayres. In the capital there is a large foreign element in the faculties employed in secondary schools. The administration of the schools is in the hands of the national council, assisted by three superintend

ents.

The plan upon which the two universities are organized is uniform; there are only three faculties-law and social science, medicine, and physical and natural sciences. There is, however, a distinct feeling in favor of the establishment of a faculty of letters. The age of entry is 18, and the course is one of six years. Women are allowed to attend lectures in the faculty of medicine-one, in fact, recently took her M. D. with honors. (Lond. Jl. of Ed.)

Austria.-The latest data concerning the Austrian elementary schools are published by the Austrian statistical bureau. Austria had, in 1890,3,335,674 pupils of school age (6 to 14 years); of these 21,895 could not attend school owing to mental or physical incapacity, while 365,593 normally endowed children were successfully withheld from being enrolled in school. The enforcement of the compulsory-attendance law made 185,464 judicial actions necessary; of these 68,590 were sentences imposing imprisonment of a few hours or days, while 116,874 imposed fines. Eighty-eight per cent of all lower schools in Austria proper, that is, the western half of Austria-Hungary, are for both sexes; 6.8 per cent were for boys only; 5.2 per cent for girls only; 12,465 schools were open all day; 3,210 were half-day schools, and 1,239 were partly half and partly whole-day schools. The number of male teachers was 44,838; that of female teachers, 13,913. The average number of pupils to the teacher was 72. Eighty-three and

seven-tenths of the teachers were normal graduates, 11 per cent had only a diploma, and 5.3 per cent had not yet acquired their diploma. Of the 16,689 elementary schools more than one-half, or 8,400, were ungraded, 3,916 were divided into classes of two grades, and the rest up to six, seven, and eight grades.

Belgium. The School Guardian (English), says of Belgian primary schools: "The buildings are two stories high, having a gallery on the first floor running round the quadrangle. Each class has its own separate room, lofty, well lighted, and ventilated, but only from one side. The furniture consists of small tables and benches, each sufficient for two or three scholars, and all facing the slightly raised platform for the teacher's desk. The tables have slates fixed horizontally in them. Blackboards are carried around the walls with compartments for the use of each scholar, on which he copies with chalk the sums or geometrical figures or sentences dictated to the class. This is done with a view to enabling the master or mistress to see at a glance the work of each without having to pass round the room. In this way, too, the children have the advantage of å change of posture and find relief from the monotony of the lesson, The teaching is in all cases simultaneous. As no reading is taught in the 'Jardins d'Enfants' or Infants' Schools, the lowest classes have to learn the letters and their simplest combinations. These they enunciate together, and great pains are taken to make them give each letter and syllable its full and correct sound. Writing is learned from a copy set on the blackboard. A round, vertical hand is taught without any distinction between the up and down strokes. Elementary drawing is obligatory in all the primary schools, and is taught by the ordinary teachers, who have no difficulty in teaching it, having practiced it in the normal schools as well as previously in their own school days. Some ordinary object is put before the class or drawn on the blackboard

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Bolivia.-Bolivia has four universities. The following figures are given for 1888: Primary schools, 506, with 707 teachers, and 24,583 pupils, of whom 8,822 are girls secondary schools and colleges, 22, with 2,234 pupils; 774 students of law, medicine, and theology, with 55 professors in the universities. The Government's contribution to public primary schools in 1883 was 43,900 bolivianos. Bulgaria.-In 1890 Bulgaria had 3,844 elementary schools, with 129,777 boys, and 42,206 girls as pupils. The total number of boys of school age is 275,756; of girls, 261,968. For education the state grants a yearly subvention of 2,000,000 lev. Education is free and nominally obligatory for a period of four years. About 81 per cent of the population can not read or write. There is a university at Sofia, with gymnasia in the principal towns, including four for girls, besides several lower middle-class schools. There is a free public library at Sofia. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Ceylon.-The Buddists of Ceylon have taken a new departure. Hitherto their energy had been directed towards the welfare of the boys, for whom no less than forty schools had been opened within recent years under the auspices of the Theosophical Society. But it had been long ago pointed out by Col. Olcott that the Sinhalese girls should have a school of their own, where they might be brought up in harmony with their religious and national instincts. This idea was zealously worked out by a devoted Buddhist lady, Mrs. Weerakoon, and a band of her countrywomen, who, with praiseworthy activity, organized the Woman's Educational Society, now numbering over 1,800 members. Within one year this society opened four girls' schools-the Blavatsky school at Wellewatte, with about 100 children in daily attendance, and the girls' schools at Kandy, Gampola, and Panedura. (Lond. Ed. Times.)

China.-Education of a certain type is very general, but still there are vast masses of adult countrymen in China who can neither read nor write. There is a special literary, or lettered class who alone know the literature of their country, to the study of which they devote their lives. Yearly examinations are held for literary degrees and honors, which are necessary as a passport to the public service; and in 1887, for the first time, mathematics was admitted with the Chinese classics among subjects of the examinations. Recently, Western literature and works of science have been introduced in translations, and schools for the propagation of Western science and literature are continually on the increase. The principal educational institution for the purpose is the "Tung Wen Kwan," or College of Foreign Knowledge at Peking, a Government institution, where the English, French, German and Russian languages, and mathematics, astronomy, meteorology, chemistry, natural history, physiology, anatomy, and Western literature are taught by European and American professors, while the Chinese education of the pupils is intrusted to Chinese teachers. There are besides several colleges under the control of some of the numerous