simple perception of objects of Nature to the level of the logical certainty of the power of thought and judgment. The educator has to continue this. The work of the educator is to see that the child's human instincts are exercised in human affairs; and to do this by causing self-activity and self-realisation from within, not by dictating or enforcing a cut-and-dried system from without. He must secure the positive quickening of what is good; not the mere repression of what is evil, in the child. Truth must be so cultivated that falsehood is, as it were, crowded out: the intellectual and moral powers must be made so strong that the sensuous powers are overwhelmed. In the mind of the educator there must always be the clear and conscious aim of serving the divine nature in the child, so as to help it to its full development, and in no way to hinder or harm it. But the educator must serve only the life and the law of the child's nature, not its whims or its personal preferences. Instruction must be given through a series of exercises so graduated by the educator, that the startingpoint is, in every case, well within the comprehension of the pupil; and the consecutive progress through the series must always exercise the pupil's powers, without exhausting them, so that there is a continuous, easy and attractive progress, in which knowledge and the practical application of it are always closely connected. In concluding this study of Pestalozzi as a thinker we will give five outline summaries of his theory of education. Three of these are by men who knew Pestalozzi well, and worked with him-Fischer, Niederer and Dr. Mayo; and two of them are by able commentators on Pestalozzi's theories-Morf and Payne. MAYO. 1. Education should be essentially religious: Its end and aim should be to lead a creature, born for immortality, to that conformity to the image of God in which the glory and happiness of immortality consists. 2. It should be essentially moral-Moral instruction, to be availing, must be the purified and elevated expression of a moral life, actually pervading the scene of education. 3. It must be directed by an influence essentially parental. 4. It should be essentially organic-the development of the human faculties (moral, intellectual and physical) from within, by a process of expansion and growth; through selfactivity and liberty. 5. The development of all the faculties should be harmonious: to preserve the equipoise within the mental, moral and physical spheres, and between the three. 6. It should be based on intuitions. 7. It should be gradual and progressive-every age has its own mental, moral and physical claims. 8. It should be free and natural, not cramped, confined and servile. 9. It should be analytical - everything taught should be reduced to its simplest elements. PAYNE. 1. The principles of education are not to be devised ab extra; they are to be sought for in human nature. 2. This nature is an organic nature-a plexus of bodily, intellectual and moral capabilities, ready for development, and struggling to develop themselves. 3. Self-development begins with the impressions received by the mind from external objects. These impressions (called sensations), when the mind becomes conscious of them, group themselves into perceptions. These are registered in the mind as conceptions or ideas, and constitute that elementary knowledge which is the basis of all knowledge. 4. All education (including instruction) must be grounded on the learner's own observation (Anschauung) at first hand-on his own personal experience. This is the true basis of all knowledge. 4 (cont.). First the reality, then the symbol ; first the thing, then the word, not vice versa. 5. That which the learner has gained by his own observation and which, as a part of his personal experience is incorporated with his mind, he knows and can describe or explain in his own words. His competency to do this is the measure of the accuracy of his observation, and consequently of his knowledge. 6. The education conducted by the formal educator has both a negative and a positive side. The former consists in removing impediments, so as to afford scope for the learner's self-development. The latter is to stimulate the learner to the exercise of his powers, to furnish materials and occasion for the exercise, and to superintend and maintain the action of the machinery. 7. Personal experience necessitates the advancement of the learner's mind from the near and actual, with which he is in contact, and which he can deal with himself, to the more remote; therefore from the concrete to the abstract, from particulars to generals, from the known to the unknown. This is the method of elementary education; the opposite proceedingthe usual proceeding of our traditional teaching. is the scientific method-a method suited only to the advanced learner, who, it assumes, is already trained by the elementary method. CHAPTER XI. PESTALOZZI'S METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE, IN describing the methods which Pestalozzi used in teaching the above subjects, we shall take the subjects in the order of importance and value which he appeared to attach to them. "The impression made on the senses by form and number precedes the art of speech, but the art of sense-impression and arithmetic come after the art of speech." Although he says that “whatever ideas we may have to acquire in the course of our life are all introduced through the medium of one of these departments," i.e., number, form and language; this does not mean, as it at first seems to suggest, that reading, writing and arithmetic are to be regarded as the foundations of education. Notwithstanding the fact that he says that "Upon these three fundamental points [number, form and language] all elementary instruction is to be built and it is evident, therefore, that the object of our first exertions in education must be to develop and strengthen, in that manner which is most conformable to nature, the faculties of number, of form, and of language, since upon the healthy state, as it were, of those faculties, the correctness of our perceptions essentially depends"; his experience convinced him that reading, writing and |